tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-67375720725009401232024-02-07T08:41:29.558-08:00engineering in nepalDipeshhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06615527224092462437noreply@blogger.comBlogger13125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6737572072500940123.post-24627087266180621612011-07-10T02:08:00.000-07:002011-07-10T02:08:22.584-07:00Seats available for Diploma & Bachelor in Western Region Campus Pokhara<div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 10px; line-height: 15px; margin-bottom: 0.8em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">Diploma Programs</div><ul style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 10px; line-height: 15px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.8em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">Civil Engineering- 144 (120-Regular and 24-full-fee),</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.8em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">Mechanical Engineering- 24 all Regular,</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.8em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">Automobile Engineering- 24 all Regular,</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.8em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">Electrical Engineering- 48 (24-Regular and 24-full-fee),</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.8em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">Electronics Engineering- 48 all Regular,</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.8em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">Computer Engineering- 48 (12-Regular and 36-full-fee)</li>
</ul><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 10px; line-height: 15px; margin-bottom: 0.8em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><em style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;">Total intake in <strong style="font-style: normal; font-weight: bold;">Diploma </strong>level is 336 students per year.</em><br />
Total students in <strong style="font-style: normal; font-weight: bold;">Diploma</strong> level=1008. (I)</div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 10px; line-height: 15px; margin-bottom: 0.8em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><strong style="font-style: normal; font-weight: bold;">Bachelor Programs</strong></div><ul style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 10px; line-height: 15px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.8em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">Civil Engineering.- <strong style="font-style: normal; font-weight: bold;">96 </strong>(24-Regular and 72-full-fee),</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.8em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">Electrical Engineering.- <strong style="font-style: normal; font-weight: bold;">48</strong> (12-Regular and 36-full fee),</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.8em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">Electronics and Communication Engineering.- <strong style="font-style: normal; font-weight: bold;">48</strong> (12-Regular and 36-full-fee)</li>
</ul><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 10px; line-height: 15px; margin-bottom: 0.8em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><em style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;">Total intake in <strong style="font-style: normal; font-weight: bold;">Bachelor</strong> level is <strong style="font-style: normal; font-weight: bold;">192</strong> students per year.</em><br />
Total students in <strong style="font-style: normal; font-weight: bold;">Bachelor</strong> level=<strong style="font-style: normal; font-weight: bold;">768. (II)</strong></div><div style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 10px; line-height: 15px; margin-bottom: 0.8em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><strong style="font-style: normal; font-weight: bold;"><em style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;">Grand total (I)+(II) = 1776.</em></strong></div>Dipeshhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06615527224092462437noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6737572072500940123.post-41866352765853151592011-07-10T01:51:00.000-07:002011-07-10T01:51:58.808-07:00The Arniko Highway Project of Nepal<div style="color: #777777; font-family: Verdana, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 1em; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.7em; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">The project includes rehabilitation and sustainable road maintenance of the 115 km long Arniko Highway from Kathmandu to the Tibetan border minimising the environmental damage already caused before the start of the project. In most sections the road alignment is situated in fragile mountainous terrain.</div><div style="color: #777777; font-family: Verdana, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 1em; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.7em; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">The project approach was designed to give particular emphasis to:</div><ul style="color: #777777; font-family: Verdana, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 1em; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.7em; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><li style="color: #777777; font-family: Verdana, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 1em; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.4em; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">improvement of the technical, organisational and environmental capacities of the Department of Roads;</li>
<li style="color: #777777; font-family: Verdana, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 1em; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.4em; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">support to the local engineering consultants and the contracting industry to increase their capacities in road rehabilitation and their competitivity to provide appropriate quality of services in a growing market;</li>
<li style="color: #777777; font-family: Verdana, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 1em; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.4em; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">rehabilitation and maintenance in difficult mountainous terrain, including pavement, slope stabilisation and river control works; and</li>
<li style="color: #777777; font-family: Verdana, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 1em; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.4em; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">building-up, running and finally privatising the Equipment Maintenance Centre, to ensure proper maintenance and repair of private and public construction equipment and the necessary training of the staff.</li>
</ul><div style="color: #777777; font-family: Verdana, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 1em; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.7em; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">The project addressed these objectives through assisting the Department of Roads in undertaking the road rehabilitation works (institution building), and facilitating the construction works at site with private sector support.</div><div style="color: #777777; font-family: Verdana, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 1em; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.7em; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><br />
</div>Dipeshhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06615527224092462437noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6737572072500940123.post-8672431612284518042011-06-29T10:29:00.000-07:002011-06-29T10:29:02.084-07:00Nepali engineer bags Japanese award<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br />
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Nepali civil engineer Bindu Shamsher Rana has bagged the Japan Society of Civil Engineers (JSCE) International Award FY 2010 for his contribution in the field of road and bridge management and disaster risk reduction in Nepal by adopting the Japanese civil engineering technology and his efforts to make it popular in the neighbouring countries. Affiliated with the Department of Roads under the Ministry of Physcial Planning and Works, Rana is working as the project manager of the Banepa-Sindhuli-Bardibas Road Project supported by the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) since 1996.<br />
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Releasing a press statement here in Kathmandu on Tuesday, JICA informed that the award was conferred on Rana on May 27, 2011 at a special ceremony in Japan by the President of JSCE, Dr. Eng. Kenji Sakata. <br />
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Rana is the first Nepali and the 15th foreigner to be decorated with the honour since its inception in 1920. The JSCE International award is bestowed to an overseas civil engineer in recognition and appreciation of his/her professional services contributing to the advancement of Japanese civil engineering disciplines. <br />
</div>Dipeshhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06615527224092462437noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6737572072500940123.post-39818015090893385932011-06-06T05:49:00.000-07:002011-06-06T05:49:00.089-07:00ME in Electrical Power Engineering Program<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br />
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<div style="line-height: 10.85pt; margin-bottom: 6.8pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.8pt;"><span style="color: #666666; font-family: "Tahoma","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt;">The ME in Electrical Power Engineering Program is an international program designed for improving the professional competence of electrical engineers in Nepal, South-East Asia, and Africa in the electrical power engineering field.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="line-height: 10.85pt; margin-bottom: 6.8pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.8pt;"><span style="color: #666666; font-family: "Tahoma","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt;">The program started at Kathmandu University (KU) in the year 2004 as the NORAD Fellowship Program in cooperation with Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) under Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (NORAD) fellowship program, administered by Center for International University Cooperation (SIU), Norway.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="line-height: 10.85pt; margin-bottom: 6.8pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.8pt;"><span style="color: #666666; font-family: "Tahoma","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt;">The first batch of students graduated in December 2005. There were 4 students from Nepal, 1 from Zambia, 1 from Indonesia, 2 from Bangladesh, and 1 from Sri Lanka. In the year 2006, the program was revised and made 2-year full-time program. Students admitted in August 2006 will graduate in June 2008. There are currently 5 students from Nepal, 3 from Zambia, and 1 from Tanzania.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="line-height: 10.85pt; margin-bottom: 6.8pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.8pt;"><span style="color: #666666; font-family: "Tahoma","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt;">The name of the NORAD Fellowship Program has now been changed to NOMA, which stands for Norad’s Programme for Master Studies. This program was lauched in 2006. Norwegian Universities and University Colleges were invited to apply for the fund under NOMA. NOMA is a programme providing financial support to develop and run Master Degree Programmes in cooperation between higher education institutions in the South and corresponding institutions in Norway. KU and NTNU made a joint application for the NOMA Program in September 2007 and the the application was accepted by SIU. Current funding from NOMA is for running the ME in Electrical Power Engineering Program for the next two batches (2008 batch and 2010 batch).<o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="line-height: 10.85pt; margin-bottom: 6.8pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.8pt;"><span style="color: #666666; font-family: "Tahoma","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt;">The ME in Electrical Power Engineering Program now comprises study at both NTNU and KU. The students study at NTNU for the first semester (Aug-Dec 2008 for 2008 batch, and Aug-Dec 2010 for 2010 batch) to earn 30 credits in European Credit Transfer System (ECTS). The credits earned by students are transferred to 15 KU credits. The student then study at KU for the remaining period (Jan 2009-June 2010 for 2008 batch, and Jan 2011-June 2012 for 2010 batch), earning 45 KU credits. The degree is awarded by Kathmandu University, mentioning the study at NTNU and collaboration with NTNU.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="line-height: 10.85pt; margin-bottom: 6.8pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.8pt;"><span style="color: #666666; font-family: "Tahoma","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt;">Students enrolled in the program are provided with scholarship for covering their living in NTNU, Trondheim, Norway, and KU, Dhulikhel, Nepal, and other study and welfare supports. For details, please download the course description. Please contact<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="mailto:eee@ku.edu.np"><span style="color: #3172b4; font-family: "Tahoma","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt;">eee@ku.edu.np</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="color: #666666; font-family: "Tahoma","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt;"> </span></span><span style="color: #666666; font-family: "Tahoma","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt;">for any further queries.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="line-height: 10.85pt; margin-bottom: 6.8pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.8pt;"><span style="color: #666666; font-family: "Tahoma","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt;">The program is monitored by a Steering Committee (SC) with members from KU and NTNU. The SC meets twice a year, examines progresses, handles problems, and other matters related to the program.<o:p></o:p></span></div></div>Dipeshhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06615527224092462437noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6737572072500940123.post-23587284257940076202011-05-27T05:29:00.000-07:002011-05-27T05:29:16.904-07:00History of engineering education in Nepal<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 10px; line-height: 15px;">History of engineering education in Nepal can be traced since 1942, when Technical Training School was established. Engineering section of the school offered only trades and civil sub-overseers programs. In 1959, Nepal Engineering Institute, with the assistance of the government of India, started offering civil overseer courses leading to Diploma in Civil Engineering. The Technical Training Institute established in 1965, with the assistance from the Government of Federal Republic of Germany, offered technician courses in General courses in General Mechanics, Auto Mechanics, Electrical Engineering and Mechanical Drafting.</span><br />
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.8em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">In 1972, the Nepal Engineering Institute ar Pulchowk and the Technical Training Institute at Thapathali were brought together under the umbrella of the Tribhuvan University to constitute the Institute of Engineering and the Nepal Engineering Institute and the Technical Training Institute were renamed as Pulchowk Campus and Thapathali Campus respectively.</div><div style="margin-bottom: 0.8em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">Since then, the Institute of Engineering has expanded considerably. The technician programs in Electrical, Electronics, Refrigeration/Air-conditioning Engineering were started in the Pulchowk Campus, with the assistance from UNDP/ILO. The Architecture Technician program was started by the IOE in its own effort. With the assistance of the World Bank and UK, later, the existing technician level courses were strengthened and Bachelor's Degree level course in Civil Engineering was started.Similarly, with the assistance of the World Bank, the Swiss Government, and the Canadian Government, Bachelor Degree level courses in the Electronics, Electrical, Mechanical engineering and Architecture were started in the Pulchowk Campus. From academic year 1998/99 IOE has started Bachelor's Degree program in Computer Engineering. In 1996 Pulchowk Campus, with support from the Norwegian Government, has started M.Sc. Courses in Urban Planning, Structural Enginnering, Environmental Engineering and Water Resources Engineering Pulchowk Campus has also started M.Sc. courses in Renewable energy and Geothermal Engineering, Information and communication and Power systems Engineering effective from December, 2001. The diploma level programs at the Pulchowk Campus have been transferred to other three IOE campuses.</div><div style="margin-bottom: 0.8em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">The Thapathali Campus is presently offering three-year Diploma level courses in Mechanical, Automobile, Civil Engineering and Architecture.</div><div style="margin-bottom: 0.8em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">The Eastern Region Campus in Dharan, which began operating from 1984, was built with the financial assistance from Asian Development Bank and the technical assistance from the UK. This campus initially offered courses at the trade and technician levels. Now, it is offering Diploma level courses in the Civil, Electrical, Mechanical and Refrigeration/Air-conditioning Engineering. From academic year 2000/2001 Bachelor's Degree program in Agricultural Engineering has been started.</div><div style="margin-bottom: 0.8em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">The Western Region Campus in Pokhara of IOE became operational from 1987, with the assistance from the World Bank and UNDP/ILO. Initially various trades and technician courses were offered at this campus. At present, it is offering Diploma level courses in the Civil, Electrical, Electronics, Automobile and Mechanical Engineering. From academic year 1999/2000 Bachelor's Degree program in Civil Engineering has been started. </div></div>Dipeshhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06615527224092462437noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6737572072500940123.post-68399578669895447012011-05-21T08:33:00.000-07:002011-05-21T08:33:45.884-07:00Agriculture in Nepal<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', Times, serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 26px;"></span><br />
Agriculture in Nepal has long been based on subsistence farming, particularly in the hilly regions where peasants derive their living from fragmented plots of land cultivated in difficult conditions. Government programs to introduce irrigation facilities and fertilizers have proved inadequate, their delivery hampered by the mountainous terrain. Population increases and environmental degradation have ensured that the minimal gains in agricultural production, owing more to the extension of arable land than to improvements in farming practices, have been cancelled out. Once an exporter of rice, Nepal now has a food deficit.<br />
Over 80 percent of the population is involved in agriculture, which constitutes 41 percent of GDP. The seasonal nature of farming leads to widespread underemployment, but programs to grow cash crops and encourage cottage industries have had some success over the years. Two-sevenths of the total land is cultivated, of which 1.5 million hectares produced 3.7 million metric tons of the staple crop of rice in 1999. Wheat and maize together take up a similar portion of the available land, with harvests of 1 million metric tons and 1.5 million metric tons, respectively, in 1999. Production of cash crops increased substantially in the 1970s, and sugarcane, oilseed, tobacco, and potatoes (a staple food in some areas) were the major crops. Agricultural production accounted for about three-fourths of total exports in the late 1980s. As noted earlier, most exports consist of primary agricultural produce which goes to India. In general the majority of Nepalese farmers are subsistence farmers and do not export surplus; this does not prevent a minority in the fertile southern Tarai region from being able to do so. Most of the country is mountainous, and there are pockets of food-deficit areas. The difficulties of transportation make it far easier to export across the border to India than to transport surplus to remote mountain regions within Nepal. A considerable livestock population of cattle, goats, and poultry exists, but the quality is poor and produces insufficient food for local needs.<br />
Government efforts to boost the agricultural economy have focused on easing dependence on weather conditions, increasing productivity, and diversifying the range of crops for local consumption, export, and industrial inputs. Solutions have included the deployment of irrigation, chemical fertilizers, and improved seed varieties, together with credit provision, technical advice, and limited mechanization. This has had some effect. Land under irrigation increased from 6,200 hectares in 1956 to 583,000 hectares in 1990. The use of chemical fertilizers, introduced in the 1950s, climbed to about 47,000 metric tons by 1998. Still, the weather continues to determine good and bad years for the average farmer. On a national scale, while production of both food and cash crops grew annually by 2.4 percent from 1974 to 1989, population increased at a rate of 2.6 percent over the same period.<br />
Increased agricultural activity has placed tremendous stress on the fragile ecosystems of the mountains, with severe deforestation leading to erosion and flooding that threatens the livelihoods of farmers throughout the country. In the rush to open up arable land in the early years of development, Nepal lost half its forest cover in the space of 3 decades. Government plans to maintain cover at 37 percent depend on the success of community forestry programs, which merge traditional and modern agro-forestry and conservation practices. Responsibility is placed in the hands of Forest User Groups, which included almost 800,000 households in 1999.<br />
A potent issue is that of land reform. Before 1950, a feudal system held sway. Land ownership was concentrated in the hands of landlords who contracted out to tenant farmers. Increased productivity may have been suppressed by such a system. Even though the legal mechanisms for land reform (such as placing limits on the amount of land owned) do exist, in practice most farmers still have pitifully small holdings. Predictably, land reform has been the mandate of every political party in Nepal, particularly the communists.<br />
</div>Dipeshhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06615527224092462437noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6737572072500940123.post-65988193935039279862011-05-19T07:14:00.000-07:002011-05-19T07:14:08.051-07:00Electricity Crisis in Nepal<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #222222; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 17px;"></span><br />
<h3 class="post-title entry-title" style="font: normal normal normal 22px/normal Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.75em; position: relative;">Electricity Crisis (Load shedding) in Nepal</h3><div><br />
</div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;"><div align="left"><em>Nepal is in the grip of electricity crisis. The electricity crisis of this millennium began in 2006. Nepal saw the last electricity crisis of the last millennium in 1999 and with the commissioning of Khimti project in 2000, there was no load shedding through till 2005. Earlier NEA used to ascribe load shedding to “no water in rivers.” However, since last wet season Nepal had to suffer from load shedding even while she had to struggle with “flood” problem. With no electricity for 16 hours a day, the last dry season was the worst so far. Nepal’s macro economy is suffering heavily due to the phenomenon. However, it is anomalous that even at the time of load shedding NEA has been spilling energy due to mismatch of system as well as transmission congestion. NEA has promised respite from the problem in next 5 yeas but the facts and figures do not corroborate the claim. GoN’s defective vision and short sighted policy is at the root of the problem which can be mitigated by setting the vision right and making the policy more forward looking and based on the principle of self-reliance.</em></div><div align="left"><br />
</div><div align="left"></div><div align="left">Key words: electricity crisis, load shedding, NEA, IPPs, adverse impact, anomaly, respite, GoN Policy, tariff, Nepal.</div><div align="left"></div><div align="left">The “load shedding” schedule, that Nepal Electricity Authority (NEA) publishes regularly, has become a must have document in every household these days, such that it has gained, though cynical, popularity amongst the consumers in Nepal. It must be admitted that, NEA is both fair and equitable in making electricity available (or conversely unavailable) as the number of hours consumers didn’t receive electricity (or received electricity) was same for all consumers within a region. Further, the hours that the consumers didn’t (or did) receive electricity was rotated such that no consumer received (or didn’t not receive) electricity everyday during the same window of time. NEA deserves to be complimented for its competence in preparing a fair and equitable load shedding schedule and implementing it with “punctuality”!</div><div align="left"></div><div align="left"><strong>Electricity Crisis</strong></div><div align="left">Nepal is being ravaged by the electricity crisis. The electricity crisis of this millennium began in 2006. Nepal saw the last electricity crisis of the last millennium in 1999 and, with the commissioning of Khimti project in 2000, there was no load shedding through till 2005. Nepal was grappling with the problem of flood in the first week of August 2008, with resultant loss of life and limb as well as property in the hilly areas and Terai of the west Nepal. Besides, the breach of Koshi embankment, erroneously billed as a flood, during the same window of time played havoc in east Nepal where people were getting drowned (and killed, unfortunately, too) and displaced, homes being washed away, and farmers’ investment of time, money and energy in the cultivation washed out. Moreover, communication network and infrastructure including road network was thrown in disarray. But, although NEA used to trot out the excuse of no water in rivers whenever it came up with a load shedding schedule, even in such abundance (or flood!) NEA was imposing a load shedding of 2 hours each day, two days a week. With effect from 27th August, 2008 the load shedding hours was increased to 16.5 hours/week. The increase of load shedding by more than 4 times was ascribed to (a) inability to import power from India, due to collapse of a particular transmission tower in east Nepal caused by the breach of Koshi embankment, and consequent flooding of the area and (b) low water level in Kulekhani reservoir. There was one more reason behind the “augmentation” of load shedding hours which can be gleaned by studying following table closely<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=4101224948087276413&postID=6512509580341348140#_edn1" name="_ednref1" style="color: #cc6611; text-decoration: none;" title="">[1]</a>:</div><div align="left"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: center;">Table 1</div><div style="text-align: center;">Availability as of Aug 26, 2008 (Bhadra 10, 2065<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=4101224948087276413&postID=6512509580341348140#_edn2" name="_ednref2" style="color: #cc6611; text-decoration: none;" title="">[2]</a>)</div><div align="left"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhP0g96BGyC4yFTpv4kE7-gdIQZpWVCgWizMnioMVIo-acYx_rZ3sUMRqe_7ot7LsNngUw14UqhFUOsWx7A3A36KUDBnuGNWh2dWQToCph3kwTBkj6__ISqzzk4Tr6EZjBgSHyRhMUdjj7F/s1600-h/clip_image002.jpg" style="color: #cc6611; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5439489169603746898" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhP0g96BGyC4yFTpv4kE7-gdIQZpWVCgWizMnioMVIo-acYx_rZ3sUMRqe_7ot7LsNngUw14UqhFUOsWx7A3A36KUDBnuGNWh2dWQToCph3kwTBkj6__ISqzzk4Tr6EZjBgSHyRhMUdjj7F/s400/clip_image002.jpg" style="-webkit-box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.0976563) 1px 1px 5px; background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; display: block; height: 400px; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-left: 5px; padding-right: 5px; padding-top: 5px; position: relative; text-align: center; width: 356px;" /></a>From the above table it is clear that the load shedding of 4 hours/week and 16.5 hours/week during the rainy season last year could also be ascribed to the fact that a number of plants were not operating at its full capacity although there was no dearth of water in the rivers; of 617.28 MW installed capacity in the system at that time, the power plants were generating only 530 MW, although availability of water was not a problem. This implies that these plants were not properly maintained and, therefore, not generating at full capacity even during the wet season. In the dry season when a number of power plants are not able to generate to its full capacity due to paucity of water, necessary scheduled maintenance should have been undertaken. Looks like timely maintenance of these plants were not undertaken.</div><div align="left"><br />
</div><div align="left"></div><div align="left">Presenting the annual report for fiscal year 2007/8, NEA’s Managing Director mentioned that “in the dry months, shrinking of snow-fed rivers further worsen the situation and we were left with no option but to impose 48 hours-a-week load curtailment for every consumers.”<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=4101224948087276413&postID=6512509580341348140#_edn1" name="_ednref1" style="color: #cc6611; text-decoration: none;" title="">[5]</a> The load shedding timing during that fiscal year was as detailed in following table:</div><div align="left"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: center;">Table 2</div><div style="text-align: center;">Load shedding during FY 2007/8<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=4101224948087276413&postID=6512509580341348140#_edn2" name="_ednref2" style="color: #cc6611; text-decoration: none;" title="">[6]</a></div><div align="left"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgXjEGmmkAF8SFBBFF1SvPRydDseEjz5B_BFzLuByLe1l7DHZB6U9QZGpobqSTLTb7pIFcUtOaZIpD0oIpAPq3EdXcOBs_i9w3gtrxMegxtx1_O3TycDGxVvKtWltfUSpP7TlJAwiJxaXL1/s1600-h/clip_image002.jpg" style="color: #cc6611; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5439488809251733730" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgXjEGmmkAF8SFBBFF1SvPRydDseEjz5B_BFzLuByLe1l7DHZB6U9QZGpobqSTLTb7pIFcUtOaZIpD0oIpAPq3EdXcOBs_i9w3gtrxMegxtx1_O3TycDGxVvKtWltfUSpP7TlJAwiJxaXL1/s400/clip_image002.jpg" style="-webkit-box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.0976563) 1px 1px 5px; background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; display: block; height: 137px; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-left: 5px; padding-right: 5px; padding-top: 5px; position: relative; text-align: center; width: 400px;" /></a>With the installed capacity of 615.959 MW in FY 2006/7, NEA saw a growth in peak power demand by 11.31% and 10.76% growth in energy demand in FY 2007/8 – which further aggravated the problem, resulting in 46.5 hours-a-week load curtailment for every consumer in the dry season during that year.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=4101224948087276413&postID=6512509580341348140#_edn1" name="_ednref1" style="color: #cc6611; text-decoration: none;" title="">[7]</a> Against a demand growth of 73.34 MW during that year, only 1.42 MW got added to the system<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=4101224948087276413&postID=6512509580341348140#_edn2" name="_ednref2" style="color: #cc6611; text-decoration: none;" title="">[8]</a>. The energy demand in the year totaled <a href="http://www.blogger.com/" name="OLE_LINK4" style="color: #888888; text-decoration: none;"></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/" name="OLE_LINK3" style="color: #888888; text-decoration: none;">3,490.12</a> GWh while available energy was 3,180.66 GWh only. The various sources from which the energy was available in this period are as follows<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=4101224948087276413&postID=6512509580341348140#_edn3" name="_ednref3" style="color: #cc6611; text-decoration: none;" title="">[9]</a>:</div><div align="left"><br />
</div><div align="left"></div><div style="text-align: center;">Table 3</div><div style="text-align: center;">Sources of Electricity in GWh</div><div align="left"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi28AAZwMzEVGe0HgtboZBmtjf-7_wyG0sT-CZaEdpY67c2xeFhMWMNyBhhX_uhzW3VFNHbxffNgg4xdeJsCotIQh__C6rXHbYpnaL4HzOd_SmH65nJ8XTC2Vw4iTJobZ8i32ENMi3YjFJ7/s1600-h/clip_image002.jpg" style="color: #cc6611; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5439488524627304146" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi28AAZwMzEVGe0HgtboZBmtjf-7_wyG0sT-CZaEdpY67c2xeFhMWMNyBhhX_uhzW3VFNHbxffNgg4xdeJsCotIQh__C6rXHbYpnaL4HzOd_SmH65nJ8XTC2Vw4iTJobZ8i32ENMi3YjFJ7/s400/clip_image002.jpg" style="-webkit-box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.0976563) 1px 1px 5px; background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; display: block; height: 134px; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-left: 5px; padding-right: 5px; padding-top: 5px; position: relative; text-align: center; width: 400px;" /></a>Thus the load shedding is a function of the deficit of 309.46 GWh between energy available and energy demand during the year. The peak system demand of 721.73 MW was recorded on December 31, 2007 which is depicted in the following chart<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=4101224948087276413&postID=6512509580341348140#_edn1" name="_ednref1" style="color: #cc6611; text-decoration: none;" title="">[10]</a>:</div><div align="left"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: center;">Chart 1</div><div align="left"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhl48D5wY_YeWOkfcOV_YQta2jL5DV5tMjERKKDz8ZKxVMTkU5lJ9TWK6HtQa57bDoA-BMhnKk86AQo_cweUT6Zu6TMEw_TmNzW0NVlxTpJNodubMapwXmn9HL_mZncj7FOZZOCUZbr-PFK/s1600-h/clip_image002.jpg" style="color: #cc6611; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" border="0" height="234" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5439488227401679954" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhl48D5wY_YeWOkfcOV_YQta2jL5DV5tMjERKKDz8ZKxVMTkU5lJ9TWK6HtQa57bDoA-BMhnKk86AQo_cweUT6Zu6TMEw_TmNzW0NVlxTpJNodubMapwXmn9HL_mZncj7FOZZOCUZbr-PFK/s640/clip_image002.jpg" style="-webkit-box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.0976563) 1px 1px 5px; background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; display: block; height: 234px; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-left: 5px; padding-right: 5px; padding-top: 5px; position: relative; text-align: center; width: 400px;" width="400" /></a></div><div align="left"><strong>Undeclared Load Shedding</strong></div><div align="left">According to NEA’s annual report for FY 2007/08, NEA had 1,524,610 consumers connected to its grid, which works out to 31% of the estimated population of 2008 of about 27 million. That means 69% of Nepal’s population did not have to suffer from the vagaries of NEA’s load shedding; the undeclared one. The simple reason behind this is that these people, for lack of access to the services of NEA, were under 24 hour load shedding and that too around the year. From another perspective, the load shedding could have had a lot more serious adverse impact but for the fact that people in Nepal used only 70.865 kWh per capita of electricity in 2006, which is very low compared to Iceland where people consumed 31,147.292 kWh per capita,<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=4101224948087276413&postID=6512509580341348140#_edn1" name="_ednref1" style="color: #cc6611; text-decoration: none;" title="">[11]</a> highest in the world, in the same year. The principal reason behind such low consumption of electricity can be assessed from following chart:</div><div style="text-align: center;">Chart 2</div><div style="text-align: center;">Energy consumption in 2007/8: 9,858,000 toe<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=4101224948087276413&postID=6512509580341348140#_edn2" name="_ednref2" style="color: #cc6611; text-decoration: none;" title="">[12]</a> (estimated)<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=4101224948087276413&postID=6512509580341348140#_edn3" name="_ednref3" style="color: #cc6611; text-decoration: none;" title="">[13]</a></div><div align="left"></div><div align="left"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi__rUrE_7DWArOap5PXBLiUKaj5Zpvd8FkMlGiVv_2dqqt9guDt3Wd_ks_0p_xuOeLawF6bL5FY3TvcVmSMydzy-A5rQBHcQl36PrU1oYWMvk3jpfGT8aEWP9bnY4pIKqNjkOYmKfXLhJZ/s1600-h/clip_image002.jpg" style="color: #cc6611; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5439487922689238178" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi__rUrE_7DWArOap5PXBLiUKaj5Zpvd8FkMlGiVv_2dqqt9guDt3Wd_ks_0p_xuOeLawF6bL5FY3TvcVmSMydzy-A5rQBHcQl36PrU1oYWMvk3jpfGT8aEWP9bnY4pIKqNjkOYmKfXLhJZ/s400/clip_image002.jpg" style="-webkit-box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.0976563) 1px 1px 5px; background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; display: block; height: 229px; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-left: 5px; padding-right: 5px; padding-top: 5px; position: relative; text-align: center; width: 400px;" /></a><br />
It is clear from the above chart that electricity as source of energy comprised only 2.04% of the total consumption of energy in 2007/8 while 85% of energy consumed was from the traditional sources like firewood, agricultural residue and animal residue. In the same year the remaining 12.35% comprised of imported sources like coal and petroleum products for which Nepal needed to shell out hard earned convertible foreign exchange (hard currency); entailing balance of trade deficit as well as balance of payment deficit.</div><div align="left"></div><div align="left">There exists another facet of the problem manifest in the above chart which can be seen from the example of industrial corridors in Morang-Susari districts, Bara-Parsa districts, Rupandehi district that are power-starved. It is estimated that each of these corridors require additional power of 200 MW but due to lack of generation of electricity in the country, industrial growth of the country is being suppressed and due to the same reason Nepali economy is literally stagnating (or haven’t been allowed to grow to its full potential). This is a kind of undeclared load shedding that also has severe adverse impact on industrialization of and employment generation in the country and consequently on the macro economy.</div><div align="left"></div><div align="left"><strong>Load Shedding in Near Future</strong></div><div align="left">In one of the presentations made by the officials of NEA future load shedding has been projected as follows:</div><div style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: center;">Table 4</div><div style="text-align: center;">Load shedding forecast<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=4101224948087276413&postID=6512509580341348140#_edn1" name="_ednref1" style="color: #cc6611; text-decoration: none;" title="">[14]</a></div><div align="left"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgq6rzxDA8r1WjAM7NEl0UfEa8UFZVEnFNjhkVnKoNB67Xr9ahJnFs_OEsDq2DVkUDTnGIWa_vHQzha49rkXxqSMieNSMC3WaUtvpm5AoDNLWjilupy0f2Ub49RiLHs7OTHD7pWJzd2jAy0/s1600-h/clip_image002.jpg" style="color: #cc6611; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5439487620140380258" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgq6rzxDA8r1WjAM7NEl0UfEa8UFZVEnFNjhkVnKoNB67Xr9ahJnFs_OEsDq2DVkUDTnGIWa_vHQzha49rkXxqSMieNSMC3WaUtvpm5AoDNLWjilupy0f2Ub49RiLHs7OTHD7pWJzd2jAy0/s400/clip_image002.jpg" style="-webkit-box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.0976563) 1px 1px 5px; background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; display: block; height: 281px; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-left: 5px; padding-right: 5px; padding-top: 5px; position: relative; text-align: center; width: 400px;" /></a>This presents an unfortunate scenario for people of Nepal and its macro economy. It is also noteworthy that the actual load shedding in the dry season of 2009 was 16 hours/day instead of projected 10 hours/day.</div><div align="left"><br />
</div><div align="left"><strong>Why Load Shedding?</strong></div><div align="left">It is rather normal for people to wonder why we have to put up with load shedding in a country that is endowed with an economic potential of 43,000 MW of hydropower. It is more surprising, knowing that relevant officials did have prior knowledge of what will be the demand for electricity in the country in specific years to come. From the table (load forecast) below one is able to find out what will be the electricity demand even in FY 2025/26:</div><div style="text-align: center;">Table 5</div><div style="text-align: center;">Load Forecast<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=4101224948087276413&postID=6512509580341348140#_edn1" name="_ednref1" style="color: #cc6611; text-decoration: none;" title="">[15]</a></div><div align="left"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhPoJ3p096YBU5WayvV3Pv0Uq-D5qHd7vEbqnq6OGCOOl97xxvJ6dW78-YXBhAW07JkKFcwwNdt07plD5cGqARChKb0J2yJ-YlCQbdnsT5t8IZ2MDxduqOssbDvsx_rWgsZ1MFxr5qsb9Hx/s1600-h/clip_image002.jpg" style="color: #cc6611; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5439486979812822802" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhPoJ3p096YBU5WayvV3Pv0Uq-D5qHd7vEbqnq6OGCOOl97xxvJ6dW78-YXBhAW07JkKFcwwNdt07plD5cGqARChKb0J2yJ-YlCQbdnsT5t8IZ2MDxduqOssbDvsx_rWgsZ1MFxr5qsb9Hx/s400/clip_image002.jpg" style="-webkit-box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.0976563) 1px 1px 5px; background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; display: block; height: 400px; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-left: 5px; padding-right: 5px; padding-top: 5px; position: relative; text-align: center; width: 380px;" /></a>Having access to this information, NEA and other policy makers must have been in a position to prepare plans for an increase in generation. However, it is saddening to note that generation expansion has not kept pace with consumption growth. One of the problems behind this is the failure to complete project construction and commission in time – Middle Marsyangdi project is a prime example which was supposed to be completed in 2004 originally. However, looking at the magnitude of power deficit, it is not difficult to see that even with this project completed in a timely manner Nepal would have faced load shedding as the projects in the pipeline is not commensurate to growth of electricity consumption.</div><div align="left"><br />
</div><div align="left"><strong>Demise of Arun III and Load Shedding</strong></div><div align="left">With the country facing load shedding due to supply constraint, people, ranging from the then finance minister (an economist, possessing doctorate degree) and many electricity experts (self proclaimed and otherwise), have been ascribing the current electricity crisis to the cancellation of Arun III in 1995, which was scheduled to be completed in 2005. However, this scribe, in his article published in Hydro Nepal (a journal of water, energy and environment) has proved that the ground reality is diametrically opposite to this contention.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=4101224948087276413&postID=6512509580341348140#_edn1" name="_ednref1" style="color: #cc6611; text-decoration: none;" title="">[16]</a></div><div align="left"><strong>Silver lining</strong></div><div align="left">Like in all dark cloud, some silver lining has been seen in the load shedding problem of Nepal. Candle industry, which is a flourishing cottage industry of Nepal, has further flourished due to the electricity crisis obtaining in the country. It is heart warming to note, as candle industry has high level of backward linkage, that it must be contributing to the economy significantly. Perhaps many a marital relationships, undergoing some crisis, must have taken a turn for the better due to ubiquitous candle light during dinners frequently, even at homes!</div><div align="left">Similarly, sale of inverters, batteries, generators, solar panels, etc. also has increased by a magnitude. There is nothing to be happy about the increased turnover of these, as these have to be imported. In the case of inverters, the experts opine that use of inverters at home exacerbates the problem further as these mediums store energy inefficiently. Similarly, increase in the sales of generators has contributed to aggravation the fossil fuel crisis in the country besides contributing to environmental pollution. Due to time constraint, this paper is not able do an in-depth analysis of this aspect.</div><div align="left"><strong>Adverse impact</strong></div><div align="left">Obviously the primary impact of load shedding is on NEA in terms of loss of revenue. In FY 2007/08 the deficit of electricity was 309.46 GWh and at average revenue rate of Rs 6.70/kWh<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=4101224948087276413&postID=6512509580341348140#_edn2" name="_ednref2" style="color: #cc6611; text-decoration: none;" title="">[17]</a> NEA could have earned Rs 2.07 billion incremental revenue and would have been able to post a net profit of Rs 761 million, instead a net loss of Rs 1.312 billion, but for this crisis.</div><div align="left">There was a time when even hospitals suffered due to shortage of oxygen which was ascribed to unavailability of electricity. Similarly, factories operating for 3 shifts had to operate only 2 shifts and those operating 2 shifts had to scale down to 1 shift. It even became difficult to operate a factory for a particular shift contiguously as the load shedding occurred in the middle of a shift which posed a new kind of challenge. Especially adversely impacted were the industries that needed to keep operating their boilers or furnaces 24 hours a day as restarting these after a stoppage impacted the industry grievously because reheating or restarting a boiler was a costly affair and substantial amount of materials had to be wasted in the heating and cooling process. In order to mitigate this problem, a number of industries acquired standby generators which increased the fossil fuel crisis by a magnitude. On the other hand, even after procurement of standby generators many industries were forced to stand idly by as they were unable to operate even the standby generators due to shortage of fossil fuel to operate them.</div><div align="left">A study on “Economic Impact of Poor Power Quality on Industry – Nepal” was conducted on the auspices of USAID-SARI/Energy Program. The study examined the electricity supply interruptions both in terms of outages as well as loss of quality of power. Momentary interruptions, unplanned and planned outages, voltage fluctuations, and supply harmonics were considered. The conclusions relevant for the purpose of this paper are with regard to planned outages. The variation in the economic cost of planned outages in different industry categories is given in the table below. The industry-wide average cost of planned interruption is calculated to be US$ 0.14 per kWh. <a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=4101224948087276413&postID=6512509580341348140#_edn3" name="_ednref3" style="color: #cc6611; text-decoration: none;" title="">[18</a>]</div><div style="text-align: center;">Table 6</div><div style="text-align: center;">Economic Cost of Planned Interruptions<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiCZaKO-K5az7U98nSprBUu1cpEo-i_NfKrGDXIK5E4tW5co9VeRfjBvWOp0kWWMLba5YrLCY34VZtYxowb-dEdyeLEJWWsLBnF8eDrOPuWHSsyeDsSVrCPXlQ3gsviPHZ26NQIkMlGzQ2t/s1600-h/clip_image002.jpg" style="color: #cc6611; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5439486592324797330" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiCZaKO-K5az7U98nSprBUu1cpEo-i_NfKrGDXIK5E4tW5co9VeRfjBvWOp0kWWMLba5YrLCY34VZtYxowb-dEdyeLEJWWsLBnF8eDrOPuWHSsyeDsSVrCPXlQ3gsviPHZ26NQIkMlGzQ2t/s400/clip_image002.jpg" style="-webkit-box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.0976563) 1px 1px 5px; background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; display: block; height: 169px; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-left: 5px; padding-right: 5px; padding-top: 5px; position: relative; text-align: center; width: 400px;" /></a></div><div align="left">From this, it is clear that as a result of the electricity deficit of 309.46 GWh, the cost to the economy of Nepal amounted to a whopping Rs 3.25 billion due to planned interruptions (at the rate of US 14 ¢/kWh, equivalent to Rs 10.5). The study referred to here has used the cost of operating standby electricity generation to arrive at the cost of planned outage as the main component of it. However, as even just the fuel cost of the stand by generator exceeds Rs 15/kWh,<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=4101224948087276413&postID=6512509580341348140#_edn1" name="_ednref1" style="color: #cc6611; text-decoration: none;" title="">[19]</a> this estimate is on the lower side. Besides, this computation also ignores the cost of the chain impact on the economy in terms of lost employment, loss of purchasing power resulting in loss of demand for goods, consequential loss of revenue by the Government of Nepal (GoN) etc. due to unavailable power; all these culminating in reduction of GDP – the opportunity cost. Therefore, the loss to the macro economy is exponentially higher. However, it is beyond the ambit of this paper to deal with this issue.</div><div align="left"><br />
</div><div align="left">Further, the load shedding problem also aggravated and compounded the fuel crisis as various factories, even shops and some households started using generators to mitigate the problem of load shedding. Besides, the use of fossil fuel as an alternative to electricity increased environmental pollution (due to industries, shops<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=4101224948087276413&postID=6512509580341348140#_edn2" name="_ednref2" style="color: #cc6611; text-decoration: none;" title="">[20]</a> etc. using backup generators) including indoor pollution.</div><div align="left"><strong>Anomaly</strong></div><div align="left">There is a note worthy anomaly in all this – spilling of electricity (wasting generation capacity) in the midst of load shedding. In fiscal year 2007/8, as mentioned earlier, the energy demand totaled 3,490.12 GWh while available energy was 3,180.66 GWh only resulting in a deficit of 309.46 GWh. However, NEA spilled 223.378 GWh of this precious commodity during the same period.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=4101224948087276413&postID=6512509580341348140#_edn3" name="_ednref3" style="color: #cc6611; text-decoration: none;" title="">[21]</a></div><div align="left">The problem can be attributed to the mismatch of system. Nepal’s system predominantly comprises of run of the river power plants that generate more during rainy season while generating close to one-third of the capacity with the discharge in the rivers going down. On the other hand, consumption pattern in Nepal is diametrically opposite of generation by RoR projects – high quantum of electricity consumption in the dry season (winter) and low consumption during wet (rainy) season.</div><div align="left">Kulekhani I and II – totaling 92 MW – is the only storage project in Nepal, generation from which could be tailored to the demand. Therefore, the peak-in energy generated by these plants is at premium. But the source of water of this reservoir is not reliable rivers with significant flow. These reservoirs depend on localized rain (cloudburst) to replenish the water. The water collected in this reservoir should have reached the elevation of 1,530 m during the rainy season last year. “The monsoon has come to a close but the water level reached only 1496 m.” Previous year the water level had reached 1516 m. This too contributed to the severity of load shedding in the last dry season. Besides, it should also be noted that the dead storage of this reservoir has already reached 25% level (that is the capacity of the reservoir is only 75% of what was originally built for).</div><div align="left">Moreover, instead of using peak-in power from <a href="http://www.blogger.com/" name="OLE_LINK2" style="color: #888888; text-decoration: none;"></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/" name="OLE_LINK1" style="color: #888888; text-decoration: none;">Kulekhani </a>only during peak periods – in both dry and wet season – NEA is forced to use it during other times, especially for the Birgunj-Parwanipur industrial corridor due to transmission congestion in Hetauda-Bharatpur transmission network. There were times when NEA spilled energy generated by Kali Gandaki A project while using electricity from Kulekhani even during normal and off-peak periods.</div><div align="left">There is another facet of this spill story. In 2006 spring a Nepali businessperson based in India, who had lined up buyers for the spill energy as such, approached NEA to sell such spill energy. However, unfortunately for NEA and the nation, no deal could be struck for the purpose. The person even demonstrated his sincerity by not asking NEA to sale the spill energy to him without completing the due process in a transparent manner. He specifically suggested to NEA that it do so in both competitive and transparent manner and let the bidder offering best price strike the deal. The proposal didn’t make any progress whatsoever. It is heartrending to note that even selling such energy at Rs 1 per kWh, NEA could easily have collected Rs 223 million which would have reduced the net loss to that extent.</div><div align="left"><strong>Promised Respite from Load Shedding</strong></div><div align="left">In its annual report for FY 2007/8, NEA proclaimed that “it is envisioned that Nepal would be power surplus by year 2013/14.” In the capacity of a consumer suffering from the vagaries of the load shedding, one would wish luck to NEA for the promise. The reason given was the anticipated commissioning of following projects by 2013/14<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=4101224948087276413&postID=6512509580341348140#_edn4" name="_ednref4" style="color: #cc6611; text-decoration: none;" title="">[22]</a>:</div><div style="text-align: center;">Table 7:</div><div style="text-align: center;">Projects to be commissioned by 2013/14<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiMu1SdfGNKanrIaiSeASgV1u8qrVA_Tcw8DZYV88IiD8V3YWDjCFscoxQlyrWsWCshtn4eYFOeIL08iiWHNbCKE69H4KZWh5rUt0SpNkO0pOgvNrQ-4443rCPdDswUdO7xkhrtYeDiPpTh/s1600-h/clip_image002.jpg" style="color: #cc6611; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5439486321580235650" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiMu1SdfGNKanrIaiSeASgV1u8qrVA_Tcw8DZYV88IiD8V3YWDjCFscoxQlyrWsWCshtn4eYFOeIL08iiWHNbCKE69H4KZWh5rUt0SpNkO0pOgvNrQ-4443rCPdDswUdO7xkhrtYeDiPpTh/s400/clip_image002.jpg" style="-webkit-box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.0976563) 1px 1px 5px; background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; display: block; height: 400px; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-left: 5px; padding-right: 5px; padding-top: 5px; position: relative; text-align: center; width: 391px;" /></a></div><div><div align="left">After implementation of the above mentioned projects, the total anticipated generation capacity in the system will be 1493.38 MW. However, whether the promise will be kept depends entirely on NEA, how it functions, etc. Let’s make an attempt to examine if NEA will be able to keep the promise.</div><div align="left"><br />
</div><div align="left">According to the load forecast of NEA (Table 5 above) the peak demand in 2013/14 will be 1271 MW and as total available in the system will be 1493 MW, superficially it would seem that there will not be any need for load shedding. However, even ordinary consumers (without understanding the technicalities of electricity generation) have learnt by now the hard way that during the dry season (when the demand for power reaches its peak) hydropower plants do not generate to their full capacity. Therefore, in the promised year<a href="http://www.blogger.com/" name="OLE_LINK10" style="color: #888888; text-decoration: none;"></a>2013/14, the peak demand will be 1271 MW while with the total generation capacity of 1493.38 MW NEA will be able to generate only in the order of 7-8 hundred MW or less during the dry season.</div><div align="left">Specifically speaking, with an installed capacity of 617.38 MW in the system, 2768.25 GWh was generated in FY 2007/8, achieving a plant factor of 51.19%. Therefore, if the total installed capacity is to reach 1493.38 MW in FY 2013/14, at the plant factor of 51.19% the generation in the dry season will be 764.40 MW only and there will be resultant shortfall of 506.60 MW; consequently a scenario for definite load shedding. Conversely, to meet the projected demand of 1271 MW in that particular year the required installed capacity works out to 2483 MW, at the plant factor of 51.19%, which is an increase by 1865 MW. Unfortunately for the consumers of electricity in Nepal GoN is aiming to add only 876 MW<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=4101224948087276413&postID=6512509580341348140#_edn1" name="_ednref1" style="color: #cc6611; text-decoration: none;" title="">[23]</a> by that year. A sure shot scenario for continued electricity crisis in and through 2013/14.</div><div align="left">Moreover, it also needs to be remembered that generation capacity will reach 1493.38 level in that year only if all the projects are commissioned in timely manner as specified in the table 7 above. NEA, unfortunately, does not have a track record of completing its hydropower projects without incurring significant time overrun since the days of Kulekhani which becomes clear from the following table.</div><div align="center">Table 8</div><div style="text-align: center;">Time Overrun by Project<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg4hhyphenhyphen3DpTqnB8gkw_vRB6MD4-7qlgZe1FHTY8JQY1TsTd0PINRyGMUjFX5pe-jqnayC0t3659u8x7UPzybNYVxJEXebIlLLUvK-GXtqeqQoexBbF72Mou9dgJQP505l28TLcev4ZVhoKrO/s1600-h/clip_image002.jpg" style="color: #cc6611; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5439485933746929778" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg4hhyphenhyphen3DpTqnB8gkw_vRB6MD4-7qlgZe1FHTY8JQY1TsTd0PINRyGMUjFX5pe-jqnayC0t3659u8x7UPzybNYVxJEXebIlLLUvK-GXtqeqQoexBbF72Mou9dgJQP505l28TLcev4ZVhoKrO/s400/clip_image002.jpg" style="-webkit-box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.0976563) 1px 1px 5px; background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; display: block; height: 145px; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-left: 5px; padding-right: 5px; padding-top: 5px; position: relative; text-align: center; width: 330px;" /></a></div><div style="text-align: left;">Furthermore, above table 7 also anticipates addition of 281 MW by the private sector by that time. For this purpose the private investors need to able to execute power purchase agreements (PPAs) with NEA. From the information available till now (at the time of writing this paper), no PPA has been signed with any of the projects listed above in table 7. In view of this, the likelihood of adding 806 MW by 2013/14 is rather remote. Therefore, even if 806 MW is added to the system there will be a short fall of 506.60 MW and, hence, load shedding. If any of the projects listed aren’t commissioned in time, the gap between demand and supply will be wider and the electricity crisis will be more severe.</div><div style="text-align: left;"><br />
</div><div align="left">This indicates that there is something seriously wrong at various levels like, comprehension of the problem, planning to mitigate the problem and also in the implementation of the projects. Basically seriousness in understanding the problem is lacking and in such a scenario measures to mitigate the problem too tend to be rather sketchy.</div><div align="left"><br />
</div><div align="left"><strong>GoN Policy and Load Shedding</strong></div><div align="left">Nepal’s Water Resource Strategy<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=4101224948087276413&postID=6512509580341348140#_edn1" name="_ednref1" style="color: #cc6611; text-decoration: none;" title="">[24]</a> stipulates that “by 2017, 2230 MW hydropower developed to meet projected demand of 2230 MW, including 400 MW for export.” According to load forecast prepared by NEA (table 5 above) peak demand in FY 2017/18 is estimated at 1770.2 MW and to meet this level of demand the installed capacity will have to be at least or more than 3500 MW as power plants generate at around 50% of the installed capacity. Therefore, with 2230 MW in the system it will generate only about 1115 MW during the dry season and, therefore, the plan to export 400 MW will not be possible. Actually, if the peak load is 1770.2 MW and generation reaches 2230 MW level, the continuance of load shedding will be definite. From this it’s clear that the authors of the strategy lacked necessary vision in terms of consumption pattern in Nepal and intricacies of generation plans and plants.</div><div align="left">With regard to how much power Nepal can use one needs to think outside the box and look at the issue from a different perspective. If Nepal’s economic potential of 43,000 MW is to be harnessed at the <a href="http://www.blogger.com/" name="OLE_LINK18" style="color: #888888; text-decoration: none;"></a>plant factor of 51.19% (current standard of Nepal’s system), the electricity available will be 7140 kWh per capita for the current population of 27 million. With the population expected to reach 42 million in 2030, the electricity available will be a meager 4590 kWh per capita. This point is being belabored here to link electricity consumption with the prosperity of a nation and its populace due to forward linkaged benefits like industrialization, employment generation, import substitution, etc. Nepal can even escape from current petroleum product crisis significantly by electrifying transportation system (ranging from electric train, trolley bus, cable car, ropeway, electric bike, etc. to even hybrid car). Actually Nepal should aim to maximize use of power generated by harnessing its water resource domestically and also benefit by forward linkaged benefits. Use electricity to lift water to irrigate, to run cold storage, to set up agro-processing industries, use for industrialization of Nepal, also to set up energy intensive industries.</div><div align="left">One needs to remember that most of the prosperous countries consume electricity above 10,000 kWh per capita (Iceland consumed 31,147.292 kWh per capita in 2006 — the highest in the world) and for Nepali consumers to use 10,000 kWh per capita the installed capacity necessary will be in the order of 61,000 MW which is a lot more than even the economic potential of Nepal (43,000 MW). In this backdrop, it is disingenuous to say that Nepal has excess capacity. Therefore, the policy and strategy adopted by the government based on the assumption that Nepal has excess hydropower potential, the only use of which is exporting it to a neighboring country is at the root of all the problems.</div><div align="left">Presently the policy is focused on getting free energy by allowing developers to implement projects as export oriented. Which results in cheap and better quality electricity being exported (example is West Seti, Upper Karnali and Arun III) while condemning people in Nepal to live in the dark due to load shedding, leaving industries to starve for energy and continuing with long queues for petroleum products that pollute the environment and make people sick, increasing the absenteeism from work, and spend hard earned money on medicine and medical treatment.</div><div align="left"><strong>Way forward</strong></div><div align="left">All problems have solutions and load shedding problem is not different. In following lines an attempt is being made to come up with certain suggestions as to how the problem is best mitigated. However, due to time and space constraint, all the issues could not be dealt with here exhaustively, although one could come up with many more suggestions.</div><div align="left"><strong>GoN Policy</strong>: Nepal government should have a policy to implement as many hydropower projects as possible with domestic investment so that investment linkaged benefit will percolate into the economy. This does not mean that we should close our doors to foreign direct investment. As long as the electricity is used for the benefit of the country who is investing in the project does not matter. Secondly, Nepal should allow projects to be implemented by the investor/s (domestic or foreign) that will generate the electricity at the lowest cost. Nepal should purchase all such power (at lowest possible price) and electrify the nation massively (not just for lighting a few bulbs in houses, though) and export the electricity that Nepal is not able to consume at premium price (India had asked for 7 Indian rupees to export power from a plant in Tripura to Bangladesh<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=4101224948087276413&postID=6512509580341348140#_edn2" name="_ednref2" style="color: #cc6611; text-decoration: none;" title="">[25]</a>). What Nepal should do is, instead of dedicated export oriented power projects, she should plan to export energy during wet seasons and off peak hours when she needs to spill her electricity generation capacity while during the same window of time the electricity demand in south is at its peak, thus commanding premium tariff. In this manner we could easily get out of the trap of long term PPAs and also take advantage from the complementarity of electricity market of Nepal and India.</div><div align="left">Nepal is facing the contradiction of having to pay higher price to import from India while exporting from Nepal at substantially lower rate. What is happening is a natural phenomenon in this kind of market. From the perspective of export of power from Nepal to India there is a monopsony<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=4101224948087276413&postID=6512509580341348140#_edn3" name="_ednref3" style="color: #cc6611; text-decoration: none;" title="">[26]</a> market condition and it is but natural that the importer enjoys “market power” and is able to dictate the price. Besides, in the power market it is also a fact of life that longer PPAs fetches lower prices while the shorter ones higher price. To illustrate the point, West Seti project has a longer PPA term, and has been given lower price while (reportedly of US 5 ¢), when Nepal imports power from India we do it for short term, and pay high price. Besides, it should be obvious to all that Nepal may, for example, not be able to use full generation of West Seti project only for first few years, after that Nepal will be in a position to use close to half of it. In about a dozen years, Nepal will definitely be able to use all electricity generated by this project. In view of this too, it is not advisable to get into longer term PPAs.</div><div align="left">The hydropower licensing policy too needs improvement. According to the data availed by Department of Electricity Development, GoN, the status of survey licenses issued as of October 28, 2009 is as follows:</div><div align="center">Table 9</div><div align="center">Status of Survey Licenses as of October 28, 2009<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh0BGybP6mBpDNmYEL90Co-vFbo2XVHj6aSVfu5Se6-JZiKLfUdlgcdHw1BLAQK3GdSkm-ggy2F-CuFFcYb0ffjdCeLM4H2iIolEm5wV5f2TLhvdFKEbTzUaoQ2XkUZSfgpkwWlyLt7I_ZK/s1600-h/clip_image002.jpg" style="color: #cc6611; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5439485590580617826" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh0BGybP6mBpDNmYEL90Co-vFbo2XVHj6aSVfu5Se6-JZiKLfUdlgcdHw1BLAQK3GdSkm-ggy2F-CuFFcYb0ffjdCeLM4H2iIolEm5wV5f2TLhvdFKEbTzUaoQ2XkUZSfgpkwWlyLt7I_ZK/s400/clip_image002.jpg" style="-webkit-box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.0976563) 1px 1px 5px; background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; display: block; height: 109px; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-left: 5px; padding-right: 5px; padding-top: 5px; position: relative; text-align: center; width: 400px;" /></a></div><div align="left">It is interesting to note that the oldest license for project in the range of 1-10 MW was issued in September 2004. Similarly, in the 10-100 MW range the oldest license was issue in January 2005. Further, the oldest license for projects larger than 100 MW was issued in March 2005. For some projects the survey licenses were issued in early 2000 and were “reissued” after the licenses lapsed on expiry of 5-year license period. From this it can be fairly inferred that the “developers” securing licenses either don’t possess capability to mobilize financing or aren’t interested to actually implement the projects.</div><div align="left">This state of affairs not only precluded the genuine developers/investors from implementing the projects and alleviating the electricity crisis but it also deprived GoN from revenue stream from capacity and energy royalty that would have flown in had these projects been implemented. Therefore, GoN policy needs to be amended to make it difficult for people without financial capability to hoard licenses; it has been seen that some licensees even don’t have necessary resource to conduct the survey (feasibility study). It is recommended that survey licenses be issued only after bank guarantee covering 10% of the cost of the project is furnished to GoN; the licensees to forfeit such guarantees if the project isn’t implemented at the end of the survey license period.</div><div align="left"><strong>Infrastructure</strong>: Private investors have discovered that investment in electricity generation project is a lucrative business. However, they are constrained by lack of infrastructure like transmission network and access road. From a section of this paper above we have seen that private sector, indeed does have comparative advantage in building power plants both from the perspective of time and cost (in successfully avoiding time and cost overruns). Therefore, NEA should launch a campaign to build transmission network and if it is constrained by financial considerations, then she should, to use an old euphemism, beg, borrow or steal to build the transmission network where it enjoys both comparative and competitive advantage.</div><div align="left">What is being forgotten here is the fact that India herself is facing an electricity crisis of a higher magnitude and it will not be easy for India to come to Nepal’s rescue when its own citizen are suffering. Moreover, the connection points proposed, across the border in India, like Gorakhpur, Purnea and Muzaffarpur are load centers suffering acute power deficit. The only exception is Silguri, which, unfortunately has not been prioritized. In reality, these cross border connections are being planned to be built to evacuate power from Nepal to India from the export-oriented projects already bagged by Indian developers or other developers in collaboration with Indian investors and some more that will be bagged. This becomes clear by looking at the highest priority accorded to Dhalkebar-Muzaffarpur trans-border transmission line that will be used to evacuate power from Arun III and Tamakoshi projects in Nepal. Actually if one is to look at the concept closely, it is an excellent modality to make the NEA invest in erecting a transmission line for India to import power from Nepal. In the normal course, transmission lines are built by the importer or the developer of export-oriented power projects.What is being forgotten here is the fact that India herself is facing the electricity crisis by a higher magnitude and it will not be easy for them to come to Nepal’s rescue when its own citizen are suffering from it. Moreover, all the connection points proposed across the border in India, like Gorakhpur, Purnea and Muzaffarpur (except for Silguri), are load centers suffering power deficit. In reality, these cross border connections are being planned to be built to evacuate power from Nepal to India from the export oriented projects already bagged by Indian developers and some more that will be bagged. Actually if one is to look at the concept closely, it is an excellent modality to make NEA invest in erecting a transmission line for India to import power from Nepal. In the normal course transmission line is built by the importer or the developer of export oriented power project.</div><div align="left"><strong>Delayed Completion of Projects:</strong> A part of the load shedding problem is attributable to construction delays. Implementation of hydropower projects by NEA is fraught with both cost overrun and time overrun risks as the experience shows. Therefore, the best use of national resource is to have hydropower projects implemented by private sector that seems to be able to implement projects effectively and efficiently both in terms of cost and time.</div><div align="left">However, it doesn’t mean to say that NEA should not be involved in the construction of hydropower projects at all. What it needs to do is to learn lessons from the projects it was involved in the implementation in the past. All along NEA have had a spate of double trouble of suffering from both cost overrun and time overrun. In order to mitigate this problem NEA should review structure and content of construction/supply contracts that it signs with contractors and suppliers and adopt construction/supply contracts which are not open ended (fixed time and fixed price) – not affording any latitude for increase in cost or completion time (to use the popular phrase with no scope for any “variation order”).</div><div align="left"><strong>System Mismatch</strong>: With the total installed capacity of over 687 MW now, the system is generating less than half of that during the dry season when the demand is at its peak, thereby creating electricity crisis. Nepal not only needs to have a reliable storage project in its stable but she should also supplement peak period demand by implementing daily pondage projects.</div><div align="left">NEA should also seek the cooperation of private sector to solve the system mismatch problem, by introducing bulk <a href="http://www.blogger.com/" name="OLE_LINK14" style="color: #888888; text-decoration: none;"></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/" name="OLE_LINK13" style="color: #888888; text-decoration: none;">time-of-day tariff </a>besides the seasonal variation in the tariff as it has now adopted for projects of up to 25 MW. In other words, it should have provision for time-of-day tariff with seasonal variation for projects of all sizes such that building a storage (or daily pondage) project will become lucrative for the private sector too.</div><div align="left"><strong>Investment friendly environment</strong>: In order to assess the role of investment friendly environment in the implementation of hydropower projects, it’s educative to compare the target and achievement of 9th and 10th five year plans. In 9th five year plan the target was set at 293 MW and the achievement was a heartwarming 91% as detailed below:</div><div align="center">Table 10<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=4101224948087276413&postID=6512509580341348140#_edn1" name="_ednref1" style="color: #cc6611; text-decoration: none;" title="">[27]</a></div><div align="center">Target and Acheivement during 9th Plan<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg5dTcvYa_1M5oGSbdD5g_jE7ABggkLnHrpU-EDyS5jxBZaTU0bklppJ1xCw9-ZldP87aZ2foQKHvHc7QSXqiT-NSflyy_suCyl5ojO7XgzMkOoos2TpbiWWr4rXEdii1EcJQLmKh_nkSq3/s1600-h/10th+plan.jpg" style="color: #cc6611; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5439462072745263330" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg5dTcvYa_1M5oGSbdD5g_jE7ABggkLnHrpU-EDyS5jxBZaTU0bklppJ1xCw9-ZldP87aZ2foQKHvHc7QSXqiT-NSflyy_suCyl5ojO7XgzMkOoos2TpbiWWr4rXEdii1EcJQLmKh_nkSq3/s400/10th+plan.jpg" style="-webkit-box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.0976563) 1px 1px 5px; background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; display: block; height: 257px; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-left: 5px; padding-right: 5px; padding-top: 5px; position: relative; text-align: center; width: 310px;" /></a></div><div align="left">Apparently encouraged by the achievement of target of ninth five year plan, it was targeted to add 314 MW to the system in tenth five year plan period. However, the achievement was 39.71 MW only as detailed below:</div><div align="center">Table 11</div><div align="center">Target and Acheivement during 10th Plan<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiTA6iH3MuDxuwkyouaR9aKBdxS3uQHB73570QraXEyby9Uiua9vB_P8g93tffcvDchTfYgJY4jBFwJYAE-L3VWZ4hxF1WjVISv7JPq2UEIorP6snqmamz-MLfPGDHGDPlW308RsIKSG291/s1600-h/clip_image002.jpg" style="color: #cc6611; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5439461856810933922" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiTA6iH3MuDxuwkyouaR9aKBdxS3uQHB73570QraXEyby9Uiua9vB_P8g93tffcvDchTfYgJY4jBFwJYAE-L3VWZ4hxF1WjVISv7JPq2UEIorP6snqmamz-MLfPGDHGDPlW308RsIKSG291/s400/clip_image002.jpg" style="-webkit-box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.0976563) 1px 1px 5px; background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; display: block; height: 340px; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-left: 5px; padding-right: 5px; padding-top: 5px; position: relative; text-align: center; width: 362px;" /></a></div><div align="left">Besides, an array of reasons behind the plan failure as such, the main constraint during the period was the lack of investment friendly environment due to Maoist insurgency. Investment friendly environment, manifest in political stability and law and order is sine qua non to attract investment, especially in hydropower which is of capital intensive nature.</div><div align="left"><strong>Loss control:</strong> NEA announced that its net system loss was 25.15% in 2007/08 and 26.71% in 2006/07<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=4101224948087276413&postID=6512509580341348140#_edn1" name="_ednref1" style="color: #cc6611; text-decoration: none;" title="">[28]</a>. This is total of both technical and non-technical loss. Technical loss can be significantly reduced by up to 7-8 percentage points by strengthening the transmission network which will definitely help in reducing load shedding duration. Currently, reduction of 1% loss is tantamount to conservation of approximately 7 MW of power (one could even say that is equal to adding 7 MW to the system). Its costs at least Rs 1 billion to add 7 MW but to strengthen transmission line to conserve 7 MW, it will cost less than Rs 50 million.</div><div align="left">It is true that reduction of non technical loss will not help reduce duration of load shedding. But curtailing non technical loss will result in providing electricity to the consumers who are happy to pay instead of allowing someone else to steal it.</div><div align="left"><strong>Smart Retail Tariff</strong>: At present NEA has a specific slab structure of tariff for all kinds of domestic consumers irrespective of whether their demand for electricity is elastic (whether consuming it for luxurious uses like operating air conditioner, refrigerator or laundry machine) or not (use it just to ward off darkness). It needs to introduce time of day tariff with seasonal variation to all consumers so that people will use less electricity when pressure on peak demand is high or those who prefer to continue with their luxurious life style with no concern for price should be made to pay higher tariff. Actually this is the best way to curb load shedding; allowing demand and supply to find an appropriate price.</div><div align="left">Moreover, NEA has a social tariff of Rs 4/kWh up to 20 kWh – at which rate NEA doesn’t recover its cost (of generation, transmission plus distribution). Under the current policy the social tariff is not limited to indigent people only. In other words, NEA is availing this tariff to all domestic consumers across the board; irrespective of whether the power is being consumed for luxurious purposes or not and whether the consumer deserves the subsidized tariff or not. Therefore, NEA tariff should be amended to make social tariff available to only those who deserve it – poorest of the poor. Under a crude estimate, just with this one change NEA will earn incremental revenue of Rs 1 billion.</div><div align="left"><strong>Encourage Private Sector to Install More Capacity</strong>: Due to increase in the cost of construction materials like steel, cement, etc. private developers are asking for an increase in bulk tariff NEA offers to the private sector. But NEA’s hands are bound as it is in no position to raise retail tariff without which it will be forced to incur loss of higher magnitude. The way out is to keep the bulk tariff at the same level but for GoN to exempt power projects from all import duties. GoN needs to understand that it doesn’t make sense for it GoN to earn revenue while NEA is hemorrhaging because NEA is also fully owned by GoN. Instead of revenue from duties, GoN should vie to reap benefit by the multiplier effects that will be caused by electrification of the country. To give a simple example, it is better to lose import revenue and have the country use more electricity from which more employment will generated, leading to rise in people’s incomes (they will pay income tax), peoples consumption will rise (from which government can collect excise duty and value added tax), etc. than attempt to collect revenue which will discourage implementation of hydropower projects leading to continued load shedding and the economy stagnating for lack of energy.</div><div align="left">What the government needs to remember is that sacrifice of revenue by it to increase domestic consumption will eventually enrich the macro economy, hence the government, gaining from the multiplier effect on the economy due to forward linkages of electricity uses. Same is not true in the case of export oriented projects. If such import duty facilities were to be granted to export oriented projects, the economy not only loses the revenue stream from the tax and duties, but Nepal’s economy also is deprived of the benefit of economic linkages.</div><div align="left"><strong>Conclusion</strong></div><div align="left">It is rather tragicomic to have a country like Nepal, richly endowed with water resources, suffer from the problem of load shedding. Almost a case of paucity in the midst of plenty (actually not really true as only generation potential is there but the shortage is due to no generation) which is parallel to another cliché: water, water everywhere, but not a drop to drink (a little closer to truth). Besides, the problem is not too difficult to solve if only the hydrocracy (intelligentsia, politicos and bureaucracy involved in hydropower sector) starts to think outside the box. The problem is rooted in the tunnel vision. Because, although NEA has promised respite from it by 2013/14, it is clear from above discussion that even if the projects in the “pipeline” are commissioned by the promised date, the load shedding will not vanish. If projects, god forbid, do not materialize as envisaged, time will come when people will start talking about when will the electricity be available (like water in the taps), rather than when electricity will not be available.</div><div align="left">The load shedding is not happening because the decision makers are unable to figure out what will be the demand for the years to come or such data is not available to them. If the status quo is to continue, then Nepal will be condemned to have it as a standard phenomenon, because correct decisions – with regard to policy as well as with regard to when to start implementation of specific project to augment generation capacity – are not taken at appropriate time, the bureaucracy is unable to ensure that the projects under implementation are completed within expected time. The need of the hour is to have a paradigm shift.</div><div><br />
</div></div></span></div></div>Dipeshhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06615527224092462437noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6737572072500940123.post-55206867014391016292011-05-16T09:33:00.000-07:002011-05-16T09:33:03.085-07:00Engineering invention of Nepal<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', Times, serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 22px;"><span class="article-para" style="color: black; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', Times, serif; font-size: 11pt;">Building a robot was no more than a science fiction, cartoon-induced fantasy by a child in Nepal until about eight years ago when some mechanical and electronic engineering students of the Pulchwok Engneering College established a revolutionary club: ‘PEC Robotics’, coordinated and instructed by Ramesh Chaudari. Robotics engineering is now more than child’s play to the club’s team of 11 extremely talented and devoted engineers. <br />
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You feel like you are in a Hollywood science fiction movie, or in a time machine workshop, when you enter the clubhouse. The dark room in which the robotics engineers work takes you into a world quite different from a modern scientist’s workspace, since the PEC students use less of high-tech equipment and components. Look around, and you’ll see what looks like a skeleton of a motor car lying there, something that looks like a space shuttle in the far corner of the room, and a metal plate half cut on a machine.<br />
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The workshop leads to another room with a green floor where the robots are tested. That room looks a bit like a tiny golf course, but with angular edges and smooth surface. At the far end of the room is a television set in working condition, which one can assume is the only entertainment apart from a battered old acoustic guitar laying beside it. And all around the room are posters of Robocon, beneath which the achievement of the Nepali team of each year is noted. One says: “Only South Asian Country to Qualify to Quarter Finals”. Another reads: “Wins Mabuchi Motor Award”. One poster shows pictures of an escalator, a cooler, a hybrid car (prototype) and an industrial robot, all built by members of the club.<br />
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Doors at the left of the workshop lead to a bedroom and a meeting room. The bedroom, with long low beds, is where the engineers sleep. It’s clear that the place is not a luxury; nor is the meeting room. No wonder they look like places where numerous award winning ideas for the robots were born. <br />
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The PEC Robotics Club has limited resources and, at times a short budget, but that does not deter the members. They build robots out of TV and radio components. They spend days and nights, all week, in the workshop with no breaks not even on festival days. It’s not because they need to, but because they want to. The students are either in class or in the workshop all day. It’s their way of life.</span><br />
<span class="article-para" style="color: black; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', Times, serif; font-size: 11pt;">The sole purpose of the club is to participate in the Robocon Robot Contest, an annual international competition, which attracts up to 17 participating countries, including Nepal, Japan, Korea and India.<br />
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The International Robocon 2008 was held at Maharastra Institute of Technology(MIT) Pune, India on 31st August. Seventeen engineering colleges from 16 countries participated (Bangladesh, China, Egypt, Fiji, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia, Japan, Republic of Korea, Macau, Malaysia, Mongolia, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Vietnam). The theme of Robocon 2008 hosted in India was Govinda. Govinda is a traditional Indian deity who used to play earthly games by stealing butter and cheese from the heads of gopis (a cow-herd girl). This was colorfully animated on the field at MIT. The event was broadcast by India’s Doordarshan TV and other members of Asia-pacific Broadcasting Union across the world. The next Robocon International will be held in Japan in August 2009.<br />
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At the last Robocon, the PEC students representing Nepal won Second Prize and a prize for the Best Autonomous Machine , a prestigious acknowledgement. It is a great thing to be beating teams from prosperous countries like Japan, since the Nepalese team put together their robot with great hardship on a low budget. “Even the practice arena of the PEC Robotics Club where we test the robots has a poor surface since the green material is expensive,” says Dinesh Twanabasu, the club leader. “We lack a proper budget so we have to use old equipment and parts of appliances. and at times we even have to destroy old robots to make a new one work.” <br />
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The eleven club members have this goal – to learn and to build. Each time they learn a new chapter in physics, they apply it to their new robot, so that each new robot is more sophisticated than the last one. The Robocon has a round where sophistication is restricted to a certain degree in terms of use of components. It is a plus point for the Nepalese team because every day in the workshop they face restrictions and limitations. “It is very difficult to get robotic equipment and components, so that we often have to substitute a part with something else, or build a part from scratch, or ship it in from somewhere else. This has helped us in terms of creativity, however,” says Dinesh. After all, limitations induce creativity and need induces invention.<br />
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“We rarely go home,” he says. “We sleep in the workshop itself. Building robots is what we do all day and it is what we ponder all night.”<br />
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The awards that the club has won through the years at Robocon prove the team’s devotion, and eight years of togetherness proves their like-mindedness. “We were the first in Nepal to start a Robotics Club; but they are all over the place now. Engineering colleges now boast on the fact that they have one,” he adds. “We don’t do that, though we have one of the best clubs in the country. And what is amazing is that our boys don’t have a clue about the outside world, nor does the outside world know much about us. People who build something really simple are in the media everywhere, things that are way less complicated and innovative than what our members produce.”<br />
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The satisfaction of learning and the pride of holding their country up is all they get out of it. But still they are strong and show no signs of slowing down. Other than the prizes, they have yet another great achievement—they have been successfully organizing robotics competition nationally. They’ve done this for four years, encouraging other engineering colleges to take part and make advances in robotics engineering. Until recently, this was a neglected field in Nepal. Now many engineering colleges around Nepal take pride in mentioning their robotics club in college brochures. All the credit goes to the robotics pioneers of Nepal: the PEC Robotics Club, as groundbreakers who have influenced a whole generation of Nepali student engineers. </span></span></div>Dipeshhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06615527224092462437noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6737572072500940123.post-82636991142670832632011-05-08T04:02:00.000-07:002011-05-16T09:20:26.891-07:00Engineering Colleges in Nepal<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444;">There are quite a good number of engineering colleges in Nepal that provide engineering courses in various parts of the country. Most of these engineering Colleges in Nepal admit the local students through an entrance test. However foreign students are admitted on the basis of their performance in a personal interview. Candidates, to be eligible for admission to the engineering colleges in Nepal, should at least pass the Intermediate in Science/10+2 or diploma in engineering or its equivalent. </span></span><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444;">Architecture, Civil Engineering, Computer Engineering, Electronics and Communication, Electrical,Mechanical and Electronics, Energy Engineering, Civil and Rural Engineering are some of the popular engineering courses in Nepal. </span></span><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444;">While the B.E. Architecture courses are of 5 years duration, other bachelor degree courses are of 4 years duration. Some engineering colleges in Nepal also offer Masters degree courses. The Nepal Engineering College, for example, offers Master’s degree courses in Construction Management and Natural Resource Management. </span></span><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444;">On this page, we would be providing a list of engineering colleges in Nepal. This list would include both the private engineering colleges and government engineering colleges of Nepal. So far as we are concerned, the list is correct and updated. But if you come across any discrepancy, please do inform us. We would appreciate any such move that would improve the quality of the site.</span></span><br />
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<tr style="mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;"> <td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in;"> <div align="center"> <table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="background: white; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .75pt; mso-cellspacing: 0in; mso-padding-alt: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184; width: 100.0%;"><tbody>
<tr style="mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;"> <td colspan="3" style="background: #FF8B00; padding: 4.85pt 0in 4.85pt 0in;" valign="top"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><b><span style="color: #8e1d0f; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Engineering Colleges in Nepal<o:p></o:p></span></b></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 1;"> <td style="background: #EFEFEF; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt; width: 49.18%;" valign="top" width="49%"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;"><b><span style="color: #303306; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Name & Address</span></b><b><span style="color: #303306; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div></td> <td style="background: #EFEFEF; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt; width: 49.18%;" valign="top" width="49%"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;"><b><span style="color: #303306; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Phone/Email/Website</span></b><b><span style="color: #303306; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div></td> <td style="background: #EFEFEF; border: none; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;" valign="top"></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 2;"> <td style="padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;" valign="top"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Acme Engineering College,<br />
Acme Engineering College,Sitapaila Chowk, Ring Road, P.O. Box : 8849, Kathmandu, Nepal<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;" valign="top"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ph :4282962, 4280445<br />
Email:acme@acme.edu.npss<br />
Website : www.acme.edu.np<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="border: none; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;"></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 3;"> <td style="padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;" valign="top"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Asian College of Engineering & Management,<br />
GPO: 19719, Ktm, Old Baneshwor Kathmandu<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;" valign="top"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ph : 4472608, 4474169<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="border: none; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;"></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 4;"> <td style="padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;" valign="top"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Himalaya College of Engineering,<br />
Rudramati Marg-3491, Kalopul P.O. Box 24726, Kathmandu<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;" valign="top"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ph : 0977-01-4433117<br />
Email : hcoe@wlink.com.np<br />
Website : www.hcoe.edu.np<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="border: none; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;"></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 5;"> <td style="padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;" valign="top"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Lumbini Engineering College,<br />
Butwal, Rupandehi, Bhairahawa, Nepal<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;" valign="top"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ph : 542659, 561659<br />
Fax: 543444<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="border: none; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;"></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 6;"> <td style="padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;" valign="top"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Nepal Engineering College,<br />
Changunarayan VDC, Bhaktapur, G.P.O. Box: 10210, Kathmandu, Nepal<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;" valign="top"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ph :(977)16611744 Ext: 201, 202<br />
Fax:(977)16611681<br />
Email : info@nec.edu.np<br />
Website : www.nec.edu.np<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="border: none; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;"></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 7;"> <td style="padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;" valign="top"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pokhara Engineering College,<br />
Phirke, Pokhara, Nepal<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;" valign="top"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ph : 528530<br />
Fax: 531209<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="border: none; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;"></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 8;"> <td style="padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;" valign="top"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">National Engineering College,<br />
GPO : 8908, Ktm, Banasthali Chowk, Kathamandu, Nepal<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;" valign="top"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ph : 4357328<br />
Fax: 4273563<br />
Email :ncollege@ncts.com.np<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="border: none; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;"></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 9;"> <td style="padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;" valign="top"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Everest Engineering College,<br />
Gangabu, Tokha Road Kathmandu, Nepal G.P.O. Box : 6628<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;" valign="top"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ph : 977-1-4358354 / 4363024 / 25<br />
Fax: 977-1-4358354<br />
Email : admin@eec.edu.np<br />
Website : www.eec.edu.np<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="border: none; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;"></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 10;"> <td style="padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;" valign="top"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Institute of Engineering (IOE),<br />
Center for Information Technology (CIT), IOE Pulcowk P.O. Box: 1175, Kathmandu,Nepal<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;" valign="top"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ph : 977-1-5543080<br />
Email : cit@ioe.edu.np<br />
Website : www.ioe.edu.np<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="border: none; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;"></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 11;"> <td style="padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;" valign="top"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Star Engineering College,<br />
GPO : 3844, Ktm, Dhobighat, Kathmandu, Nepal<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;" valign="top"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ph :5529246<br />
Email : starenggc@wlink.com.np<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="border: none; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;"></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 12;"> <td style="padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;" valign="top"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Dhangadhi Engineering College,<br />
Dhangadhi, Kailali Nepal<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;" valign="top"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ph :091-521312<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="border: none; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;"></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 13;"> <td style="padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;" valign="top"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Janakpur Engineering College,<br />
Technovalley, Basahiya Janakpur, Nepal<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;" valign="top"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ph :041-525646, 041-522591<br />
Email :info@jec.edu.np<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="border: none; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;"></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 14;"> <td style="padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;" valign="top"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Kantipur Engineering College,<br />
Dhapakhel, Lalitpur P.O.Box: 8849 KTM. Nepal<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;" valign="top"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ph : 5571004 , 5571005<br />
Fax: 5570344<br />
Website : www.kec.edu.np<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="border: none; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;"></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 15;"> <td style="padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;" valign="top"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Kathmandu Institute of Technology,<br />
GPO : 8638, Ktm, Sankhamul, Kathmandu, Nepal<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;" valign="top"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ph : 4781481<br />
Fax: 4783903<br />
Email : kit@wlink.com.np<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="border: none; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;"></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 16;"> <td style="padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;" valign="top"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Kathmandu Engineering College,<br />
Kalimati, Kathmandu, Nepal<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;" valign="top"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ph :977-1-4284902, 977-1-4276130<br />
Fax: 977-1-4272653<br />
Email : info@keckist.edu.np<br />
Website : www.keckist.edu.np<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="border: none; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;"></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 17;"> <td style="padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;" valign="top"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Eastern College of Engineering,<br />
Pokhariya, Biratnagar, Nepal<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;" valign="top"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ph : 524505, 526395<br />
Fax: 528871<br />
Email : eascoll@ccsl.com.np<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="border: none; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;"></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 18;"> <td style="padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;" valign="top"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Paschimanchal Engineering Campus,<br />
Pokhara Pokhara, Nepal<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;" valign="top"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ph : 520093<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="border: none; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;"></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 19;"> <td style="padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;" valign="top"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">College of Software Engineering,<br />
GPO: 2438, Ktm, Putalisadak City Kathmandu, Nepal<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;" valign="top"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ph : 4227820, 4256769<br />
Fax: 4225793<br />
Email : info@cse.com.np<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="border: none; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;"></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 20;"> <td style="padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;" valign="top"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Janakpur Engineering College,<br />
Dhanusha, Janakpur, Nepal<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;" valign="top"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ph : 525646<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="border: none; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;"></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 21;"> <td style="padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;" valign="top"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Kantipur City College(KCC)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Putalisadak,Kathmandu,Nepal<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">GPO : 12837<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;" valign="top"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ph :977-1-4731093, 4430239<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Fax : 977-01-4441417,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br />
Website : www.kcc.edu.np<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="border: none; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;"></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 22; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;"> <td style="padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;" valign="top"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt; line-height: 115%;">Khwopa Engineering College,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
Libali, Bhaktapur, Nepal<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;" valign="top"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt;">Ph :6614794,6614798</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt;"> </span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt;"><br />
<span class="apple-style-span">Fax: 6615202</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<span class="apple-style-span">Email : khec@wlink.com.np</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<span class="apple-style-span">Website :</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt;">www.khec.edu.np</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="border: none; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;"></td> </tr>
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</tbody></table></div></span></span></div>Dipeshhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06615527224092462437noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6737572072500940123.post-91256015151941289642011-05-08T03:13:00.000-07:002011-05-10T01:50:24.342-07:00Solar energy<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><h1 class="firstHeading" id="firstHeading">Solar energy</h1><div class="dablink">This article is about all uses of solar energy. For the journal, see Solar Energy Journal. For generation of electricity using solar energy, see Solar power.</div><div class="metadata topicon" id="protected-icon" style="display: none; right: 55px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected."><img alt="Page semi-protected" height="20" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Padlock-silver.svg/20px-Padlock-silver.svg.png" width="20" /></a></div><div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width: 222px;"></div><div class="thumbinner" style="width: 222px;"></div><div class="thumbinner" style="width: 222px;"><br />
<div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"></div>Nellis Solar Power Plant in the United States, one of the largest photovoltaic power plants in North America.</div></div></div><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="infobox" style="clear: right; float: right; font-size: 95%; margin: 0pt 0pt 1em 1em; text-align: center; width: auto;"><tbody>
<tr> <th align="center" style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(240, 240, 240);"><b>Renewable energy</b></th> </tr>
<tr> <td><div class="center"><div class="floatnone"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wind-turbine-icon.svg" title="Wind Turbine"><img alt="Wind Turbine" height="60" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Wind-turbine-icon.svg/60px-Wind-turbine-icon.svg.png" width="60" /></a></div></div></td> </tr>
<tr> <td style="font-size: 90%;"><br />
<b class="selflink">Solar energy</b></td> </tr>
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</tbody></table><b>Solar energy</b>, radiant light and heat from the sun, has been harnessed by humans since ancient times using a range of ever-evolving technologies. Solar radiation, along with secondary solar-powered resources such as wind and wave power, hydroelectricity and biomass, account for most of the available renewable energy on earth. Only a minuscule fraction of the available solar energy is used.<br />
Solar powered electrical generation relies on heat engines and photovoltaics. Solar energy's uses are limited only by human ingenuity. A partial list of solar applications includes space heating and cooling through solar architecture, potable water via distillation and disinfection, daylighting, solar hot water, solar cooking, and high temperature process heat for industrial purposes.To harvest the solar energy, the most common way is to use solar panels.<br />
Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy. Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic panels and solar thermal collectors to harness the energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air.<br />
<div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main articles: Insolation and Solar radiation</div><div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width: 222px;"><br />
<div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"></div>About half the incoming solar energy reaches the Earth's surface.</div></div></div>The Earth receives 174 petawatts (PW) of incoming solar radiation (insolation) at the upper atmosphere.Approximately 30% is reflected back to space while the rest is absorbed by clouds, oceans and land masses. The spectrum of solar light at the Earth's surface is mostly spread across the visible and near-infrared ranges with a small part in the near-ultraviolet.<br />
Earth's land surface, oceans and atmosphere absorb solar radiation, and this raises their temperature. Warm air containing evaporated water from the oceans rises, causing atmospheric circulation or convection. When the air reaches a high altitude, where the temperature is low, water vapor condenses into clouds, which rain onto the Earth's surface, completing the water cycle. The latent heat of water condensation amplifies convection, producing atmospheric phenomena such as wind, cyclones and anti-cyclones. Sunlight absorbed by the oceans and land masses keeps the surface at an average temperature of 14 °C. By photosynthesis green plants convert solar energy into chemical energy, which produces food, wood and the biomass from which fossil fuels are derived.<br />
<table class="wikitable" style="float: right;"><tbody>
<tr> <th colspan="2;" style="background-color: #ccffbb;">Yearly Solar fluxes & Human Energy Consumption</th> </tr>
<tr> <td>Solar</td> <td>3,850,000 EJ</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>Wind</td> <td>2,250 EJ</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>Biomass</td> <td>3,000 EJ</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>Primary energy use (2005)</td> <td>487 EJ</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>Electricity (2005)</td> <td>56.7 EJ</td> </tr>
</tbody></table>The total solar energy absorbed by Earth's atmosphere, oceans and land masses is approximately 3,850,000 exajoules (EJ) per year. In 2002, this was more energy in one hour than the world used in one year. Photosynthesis captures approximately 3,000 EJ per year in biomass.The amount of solar energy reaching the surface of the planet is so vast that in one year it is about twice as much as will ever be obtained from all of the Earth's non-renewable resources of coal, oil, natural gas, and mined uranium combined.<br />
From the table of resources it would appear that solar, wind or biomass would be sufficient to supply all of our energy needs, however, the increased use of biomass has had a negative effect on global warming and dramatically increased food prices by diverting forests and crops into biofuel production. As intermittent resources, solar and wind raise other issues.<br />
Solar energy can be harnessed in different levels around the world. Depending on a geographical location the closer to the equator the more "potential" solar energy is available.<br />
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Applications_of_solar_technology">Applications of solar technology</span></h2><div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width: 222px;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="155" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Solar_land_area.png/220px-Solar_land_area.png" width="220" /> <br />
<div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"></div>Average insolation showing land area (small black dots) required to replace the world primary energy supply with solar electricity. 18 TW is 568 Exajoule (EJ) per year. Insolation for most people is from 150 to 300 W/m<sup>2</sup> or 3.5 to 7.0 kWh/m<sup>2</sup>/day.</div></div></div>Solar energy refers primarily to the use of solar radiation for practical ends. However, all renewable energies, other than geothermal and tidal, derive their energy from the sun.<br />
Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive or active depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute sunlight. Active solar techniques use photovoltaic panels, pumps, and fans to convert sunlight into useful outputs. Passive solar techniques include selecting materials with favorable thermal properties, designing spaces that naturally circulate air, and referencing the position of a building to the Sun. Active solar technologies increase the supply of energy and are considered supply side technologies, while passive solar technologies reduce the need for alternate resources and are generally considered demand side technologies.<br />
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Architecture_and_urban_planning">Architecture and urban planning</span></h3><div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main articles: Passive solar building design and Urban heat island</div><div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Technische_Universit%C3%A4t_Darmstadt_-_Solar_Decathlon_2007.jpg"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="145" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Technische_Universit%C3%A4t_Darmstadt_-_Solar_Decathlon_2007.jpg/220px-Technische_Universit%C3%A4t_Darmstadt_-_Solar_Decathlon_2007.jpg" width="220" /></a> <br />
<div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"></div>Darmstadt University of Technology in Germany won the 2007 Solar Decathlon in Washington, D.C. with this passive house designed specifically for the humid and hot subtropical climate.</div></div></div>Sunlight has influenced building design since the beginning of architectural history. Advanced solar architecture and urban planning methods were first employed by the Greeks and Chinese, who oriented their buildings toward the south to provide light and warmth.<br />
The common features of passive solar architecture are orientation relative to the Sun, compact proportion (a low surface area to volume ratio), selective shading (overhangs) and thermal mass. When these features are tailored to the local climate and environment they can produce well-lit spaces that stay in a comfortable temperature range. Socrates' Megaron House is a classic example of passive solar design.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Schittich_2003_17-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy#cite_note-Schittich_2003-17"></a></sup> The most recent approaches to solar design use computer modeling tying together solar lighting, heating and ventilation systems in an integrated solar design package. Active solar equipment such as pumps, fans and switchable windows can complement passive design and improve system performance.<br />
Urban heat islands (UHI) are metropolitan areas with higher temperatures than that of the surrounding environment. The higher temperatures are a result of increased absorption of the Solar light by urban materials such as asphalt and concrete, which have lower albedos and higher heat capacities than those in the natural environment. A straightforward method of counteracting the UHI effect is to paint buildings and roads white and plant trees. Using these methods, a hypothetical "cool communities" program in Los Angeles has projected that urban temperatures could be reduced by approximately 3 °C at an estimated cost of US$1 billion, giving estimated total annual benefits of US$530 million from reduced air-conditioning costs and healthcare savings.<br />
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Agriculture_and_horticulture">Agriculture and horticulture</span></h3><div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Westland_kassen.jpg"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="68" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Westland_kassen.jpg/220px-Westland_kassen.jpg" width="220" /></a> <br />
<div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"></div>Greenhouses like these in the Westland municipality of the Netherlands grow vegetables, fruits and flowers.</div></div></div>Agriculture and horticulture seek to optimize the capture of solar energy in order to optimize the productivity of plants. Techniques such as timed planting cycles, tailored row orientation, staggered heights between rows and the mixing of plant varieties can improve crop yields. While sunlight is generally considered a plentiful resource, the exceptions highlight the importance of solar energy to agriculture. During the short growing seasons of the Little Ice Age, French and English farmers employed fruit walls to maximize the collection of solar energy. These walls acted as thermal masses and accelerated ripening by keeping plants warm. Early fruit walls were built perpendicular to the ground and facing south, but over time, sloping walls were developed to make better use of sunlight. In 1699, Nicolas Fatio de Duillier even suggested using a tracking mechanism which could pivot to follow the Sun. Applications of solar energy in agriculture aside from growing crops include pumping water, drying crops, brooding chicks and drying chicken manure. More recently the technology has been embraced by vinters, who use the energy generated by solar panels to power grape presses.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-26"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy#cite_note-26"></a></sup><br />
Greenhouses convert solar light to heat, enabling year-round production and the growth (in enclosed environments) of specialty crops and other plants not naturally suited to the local climate. Primitive greenhouses were first used during Roman times to produce cucumbers year-round for the Roman emperor Tiberius.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-27"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy#cite_note-27"></a></sup>The first modern greenhouses were built in Europe in the 16th century to keep exotic plants brought back from explorations abroad. Greenhouses remain an important part of horticulture today, and plastic transparent materials have also been used to similar effect in polytunnels and row covers.<br />
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Solar_lighting">Solar lighting</span></h3><div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PantheonOculus.01.jpg"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="165" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/PantheonOculus.01.jpg/220px-PantheonOculus.01.jpg" width="220" /></a> <br />
<div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"></div>Daylighting features such as this oculus at the top of the Pantheon, in Rome, Italy have been in use since antiquity.</div></div></div>The history of lighting is dominated by the use of natural light. The Romans recognized a right to light as early as the 6th century and English law echoed these judgments with the Prescription Act of 1832. In the 20th century artificial lighting became the main source of interior illumination but daylighting techniques and hybrid solar lighting solutions are ways to reduce energy consumption.<br />
Daylighting systems collect and distribute sunlight to provide interior illumination. This passive technology directly offsets energy use by replacing artificial lighting, and indirectly offsets non-solar energy use by reducing the need for air-conditioning. Although difficult to quantify, the use of natural lighting also offers physiological and psychological benefits compared to artificial lighting<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Tzempelikos_2007_31-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy#cite_note-Tzempelikos_2007-31"></a></sup>. Daylighting design implies careful selection of window types, sizes and orientation; exterior shading devices may be considered as well. Individual features include sawtooth roofs, clerestory windows, light shelves, skylights and light tubes. They may be incorporated into existing structures, but are most effective when integrated into a solar design package that accounts for factors such as glare, heat flux and time-of-use. When daylighting features are properly implemented they can reduce lighting-related energy requirements by 25%.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-ASHRAE_windows_32-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy#cite_note-ASHRAE_windows-32"></a></sup><br />
Hybrid solar lighting is an active solar method of providing interior illumination. HSL systems collect sunlight using focusing mirrors that track the Sun and use optical fibers to transmit it inside the building to supplement conventional lighting. In single-story applications these systems are able to transmit 50% of the direct sunlight received.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-hybrid_lighting_33-0"></sup><br />
Solar lights that charge during the day and light up at dusk are a common sight along walkways.<sup class="Template-Fact" style="white-space: nowrap;" title="This claim needs references to reliable sources from October 2008">[<i>citation needed</i>]</sup><br />
Although daylight saving time is promoted as a way to use sunlight to save energy, recent research has been limited and reports contradictory results: several studies report savings, but just as many suggest no effect or even a net loss, particularly when gasoline consumption is taken into account. Electricity use is greatly affected by geography, climate and economics, making it hard to generalize from single studies.<br />
<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-34"></sup><br />
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Solar_thermal">Solar thermal</span></h3><div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main article: Solar thermal energy</div>Solar thermal technologies can be used for water heating, space heating, space cooling and process heat generation.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-35"></sup><br />
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Water_heating">Water heating</span></h4><div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main articles: Solar hot water and Solar combisystem</div><div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Twice_Cropped_Zonnecollectoren.JPG"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="228" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Twice_Cropped_Zonnecollectoren.JPG/220px-Twice_Cropped_Zonnecollectoren.JPG" width="220" /></a> <br />
<div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"></div>Solar water heaters facing the Sun to maximize gain.</div></div></div>Solar hot water systems use sunlight to heat water. In low geographical latitudes (below 40 degrees) from 60 to 70% of the domestic hot water use with temperatures up to 60 °C can be provided by solar heating systems. The most common types of solar water heaters are evacuated tube collectors (44%) and glazed flat plate collectors (34%) generally used for domestic hot water; and unglazed plastic collectors (21%) used mainly to heat swimming pools.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-37"></sup><br />
As of 2007, the total installed capacity of solar hot water systems is approximately 154 China is the world leader in their deployment with 70 GW installed as of 2006 and a long term goal of 210 GW by 2020.Israel and Cyprus are the per capita leaders in the use of solar hot water systems with over 90% of homes using them. In the United States, Canada and Australia heating swimming pools is the dominant application of solar hot water with an installed capacity of 18 GW as of 2005.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-IEA_Solar_Thermal_15-1"></sup><br />
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Heating.2C_cooling_and_ventilation">Heating, cooling and ventilation</span></h4><div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main articles: Solar heating, Thermal mass, Solar chimney, and Solar air conditioning</div><div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flipped_MIT_Solar_One_house.png"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="172" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Flipped_MIT_Solar_One_house.png/220px-Flipped_MIT_Solar_One_house.png" width="220" /></a> <br />
<div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"></div>Solar House #1 of Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the United States, built in 1939, used seasonal thermal storage for year-round heating.</div></div></div>In the United States, heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) systems account for 30% (4.65 EJ) of the energy used in commercial buildings and nearly 50% (10.1 EJ) of the energy used in residential buildings.Solar heating, cooling and ventilation technologies can be used to offset a portion of this energy.<br />
Thermal mass is any material that can be used to store heat—heat from the Sun in the case of solar energy. Common thermal mass materials include stone, cement and water. Historically they have been used in arid climates or warm temperate regions to keep buildings cool by absorbing solar energy during the day and radiating stored heat to the cooler atmosphere at night. However they can be used in cold temperate areas to maintain warmth as well. The size and placement of thermal mass depend on several factors such as climate, daylighting and shading conditions. When properly incorporated, thermal mass maintains space temperatures in a comfortable range and reduces the need for auxiliary heating and cooling equipment.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-42"></sup><br />
A solar chimney (or thermal chimney, in this context) is a passive solar ventilation system composed of a vertical shaft connecting the interior and exterior of a building. As the chimney warms, the air inside is heated causing an updraft that pulls air through the building. Performance can be improved by using glazing and thermal mass materials in a way that mimics greenhouses.<sup class="Template-Fact" style="white-space: nowrap;" title="This claim needs references to reliable sources from August 2008"></sup><br />
Deciduous trees and plants have been promoted as a means of controlling solar heating and cooling. When planted on the southern side of a building, their leaves provide shade during the summer, while the bare limbs allow light to pass during the winter. Since bare, leafless trees shade 1/3 to 1/2 of incident solar radiation, there is a balance between the benefits of summer shading and the corresponding loss of winter heating. In climates with significant heating loads, deciduous trees should not be planted on the southern side of a building because they will interfere with winter solar availability. They can, however, be used on the east and west sides to provide a degree of summer shading without appreciably affecting winter solar gain.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-45"></sup><br />
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Water_treatment">Water treatment</span></h4><div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main articles: Solar still, Solar water disinfection, Solar desalination, and Solar Powered Desalination Unit</div><div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Indonesia-sodis-gross.jpg"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="165" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Indonesia-sodis-gross.jpg/220px-Indonesia-sodis-gross.jpg" width="220" /></a> <br />
<div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"></div>Solar water disinfection in Indonesia</div></div></div><div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Depuradora_de_Lluc.JPG"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="165" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Depuradora_de_Lluc.JPG/220px-Depuradora_de_Lluc.JPG" width="220" /></a> <br />
<div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"></div>Small scale solar powered sewerage treatment plant.</div></div></div>Solar distillation can be used to make saline or brackish water potable. The first recorded instance of this was by 16th century Arab alchemists. A large-scale solar distillation project was first constructed in 1872 in the Chilean mining town of Las Salinas. The plant, which had solar collection area of 4,700 m<sup>2</sup>, could produce up to 22,700 L per day and operated for 40 years. Individual still designs include single-slope, double-slope (or greenhouse type), vertical, conical, inverted absorber, multi-wick, and multiple effect. These stills can operate in passive, active, or hybrid modes. Double-slope stills are the most economical for decentralized domestic purposes, while active multiple effect units are more suitable for large-scale applications.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Tiwari_2003_46-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy#cite_note-Tiwari_2003-46"></a></sup><br />
Solar water disinfection (SODIS) involves exposing water-filled plastic polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles to sunlight for several hours. Exposure times vary depending on weather and climate from a minimum of six hours to two days during fully overcast conditions. It is recommended by the World Health Organization as a viable method for household water treatment and safe storage. Over two million people in developing countries use this method for their daily drinking water.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-SODIS_CDC_49-1"></sup><br />
Solar energy may be used in a water stabilisation pond to treat waste water without chemicals or electricity. A further environmental advantage is that algae grow in such ponds and consume carbon dioxide in photosynthesis, although algae may produce toxic chemicals that make the water unusable.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-pmid14510225_52-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy#cite_note-pmid14510225-52"></a></sup><br />
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Cooking">Cooking</span></h4><div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main article: Solar cooker</div><div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Auroville_Solar_Bowl.JPG"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="140" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Auroville_Solar_Bowl.JPG/220px-Auroville_Solar_Bowl.JPG" width="220" /></a> <br />
<div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"></div>The Solar Bowl in Auroville, India, concentrates sunlight on a movable receiver to produce steam for cooking.</div></div></div>Solar cookers use sunlight for cooking, drying and pasteurization. They can be grouped into three broad categories: box cookers, panel cookers and reflector cookers. The simplest solar cooker is the box cooker first built by Horace de Saussure in 1767. A basic box cooker consists of an insulated container with a transparent lid. It can be used effectively with partially overcast skies and will typically reach temperatures of 90–150 °C.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-55"></sup> Panel cookers use a reflective panel to direct sunlight onto an insulated container and reach temperatures comparable to box cookers. Reflector cookers use various concentrating geometries (dish, trough, Fresnel mirrors) to focus light on a cooking container. These cookers reach temperatures of 315 °C and above but require direct light to function properly and must be repositioned to track the Sun.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-56"></sup><br />
The solar bowl is a concentrating technology employed by the Solar Kitchen in Auroville, Pondicherry, India, where a stationary spherical reflector focuses light along a line perpendicular to the sphere's interior surface, and a computer control system moves the receiver to intersect this line. Steam is produced in the receiver at temperatures reaching 150 °C and then used for process heat in the kitchen.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-57"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy#cite_note-57"></a></sup><br />
A reflector developed by Wolfgang Scheffler in 1986 is used in many solar kitchens. Scheffler reflectors are flexible parabolic dishes that combine aspects of trough and power tower concentrators. Polar tracking is used to follow the Sun's daily course and the curvature of the reflector is adjusted for seasonal variations in the incident angle of sunlight. These reflectors can reach temperatures of 450–650 °C and have a fixed focal point, which simplifies cooking. The world's largest Scheffler reflector system in Abu Road, Rajasthan, India is capable of cooking up to 35,000 meals a day.As of 2008, over 2,000 large Scheffler cookers had been built worldwide.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-60"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy#cite_note-60"></a></sup><br />
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Process_heat">Process heat</span></h4><div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main articles: Solar pond, Salt evaporation pond, and Solar furnace</div><div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:7_Meter_Sheet_Metal_Dishes_%28Flipped%29.png"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="145" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/7_Meter_Sheet_Metal_Dishes_%28Flipped%29.png/220px-7_Meter_Sheet_Metal_Dishes_%28Flipped%29.png" width="220" /></a> <br />
<div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"></div>STEP parabolic dishes used for steam production and electrical generation.</div></div></div>Solar concentrating technologies such as parabolic dish, trough and Scheffler reflectors can provide process heat for commercial and industrial applications. The first commercial system was the Solar Total Energy Project (STEP) in Shenandoah, Georgia, USA where a field of 114 parabolic dishes provided 50% of the process heating, air conditioning and electrical requirements for a clothing factory. This grid-connected cogeneration system provided 400 kW of electricity plus thermal energy in the form of 401 kW steam and 468 kW chilled water, and had a one hour peak load thermal storage.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-61"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy#cite_note-61"></a></sup><br />
Evaporation ponds are shallow pools that concentrate dissolved solids through evaporation. The use of evaporation ponds to obtain salt from sea water is one of the oldest applications of solar energy. Modern uses include concentrating brine solutions used in leach mining and removing dissolved solids from waste streams.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-62"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy#cite_note-62"></a></sup><br />
Clothes lines, clotheshorses, and clothes racks dry clothes through evaporation by wind and sunlight without consuming electricity or gas. In some states of the United States legislation protects the "right to dry" clothes.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-63"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy#cite_note-63"></a></sup><br />
Unglazed transpired collectors (UTC) are perforated sun-facing walls used for preheating ventilation air. UTCs can raise the incoming air temperature up to 22 °C and deliver outlet temperatures of 45–60 °C. The short payback period of transpired collectors (3 to 12 years) makes them a more cost-effective alternative than glazed collection systems. As of 2003, over 80 systems with a combined collector area of 35,000 had been installed worldwide, including an 860 m<sup>2</sup> collector in Costa Rica used for drying coffee beans and a 1,300 m<sup>2</sup> collector in Coimbatore, India used for drying marigolds.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Leon_2006_25-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy#cite_note-Leon_2006-25"></a></sup><br />
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Electrical_generation">Electrical generation</span></h3><div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main article: Solar power</div><div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PS10_solar_power_tower.jpg"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="137" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/PS10_solar_power_tower.jpg/220px-PS10_solar_power_tower.jpg" width="220" /></a> <br />
<div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"></div>The PS10 concentrates sunlight from a field of heliostats on a central tower.</div></div></div>Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity, either directly using photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly using concentrated solar power (CSP). CSP systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. PV converts light into electric current using the photoelectric effect.<br />
Commercial CSP plants were first developed in the 1980s, and the 354 MW SEGS CSP installation is the largest solar power plant in the world and is located in the Mojave Desert of California. Other large CSP plants include the Solnova Solar Power Station (150 MW) and the Andasol solar power station (100 MW), both in Spain. The 80 MW Sarnia Photovoltaic Power Plant in Canada, is the world’s largest photovoltaic plant.<br />
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Experimental_solar_power">Experimental solar power</span></h4><div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main articles: Solar pond and Thermogenerator</div><div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Solar_Evaporation_Ponds,_Atacama_Desert.jpg"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="146" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Solar_Evaporation_Ponds%2C_Atacama_Desert.jpg/220px-Solar_Evaporation_Ponds%2C_Atacama_Desert.jpg" width="220" /></a> <br />
<div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"></div>Solar Evaporation Ponds in the Atacama Desert, South America</div></div></div>A solar pond is a pool of salt water (usually 1–2 m deep) that collects and stores solar energy. Solar ponds were first proposed by Dr. Rudolph Bloch in 1948 after he came across reports of a lake in Hungary in which the temperature increased with depth. This effect was due to salts in the lake's water, which created a "density gradient" that prevented convection currents. A prototype was constructed in 1958 on the shores of the Dead Sea near Jerusalem.The pond consisted of layers of water that successively increased from a weak salt solution at the top to a high salt solution at the bottom. This solar pond was capable of producing temperatures of 90 °C in its bottom layer and had an estimated solar-to-electric efficiency of two percent.<br />
Thermoelectric, or "thermovoltaic" devices convert a temperature difference between dissimilar materials into an electric current. First proposed as a method to store solar energy by solar pioneer Mouchout in the 1800s, thermoelectrics reemerged in the Soviet Union during the 1930s. Under the direction of Soviet scientist Abram Ioffe a concentrating system was used to thermoelectrically generate power for a 1 hp engine.Thermogenerators were later used in the US space program as an energy conversion technology for powering deep space missions such as Cassini, Galileo and Viking. Research in this area is focused on raising the efficiency of these devices from 7–8% to 15–20%.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Tritt_68-0"></sup><br />
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Solar_chemical">Solar chemical</span></h3><div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main article: Solar chemical</div>Solar chemical processes use solar energy to drive chemical reactions. These processes offset energy that would otherwise come from an alternate source and can convert solar energy into storable and transportable fuels. Solar induced chemical reactions can be divided into thermochemical or photochemical. A variety of fuels can be produced by artificial photosynthesis.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-70"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy#cite_note-70"></a></sup> The multielectron catalytic chemistry involved in making carbon-based fuels (such as methanol) from reduction of carbon dioxide is challenging; a feasible alternative is hydrogen production from protons, though use of water as the source of electrons (as plants do) requires mastering the multielectron oxidation of two water molecules to molecular oxygen. Some have envisaged working solar fuel plants in coastal metropolitan areas by 2050- the splitting of sea water providing hydrogen to be run through adjacent fuel-cell electric power plants and the pure water by-product going directly into the municipal water system.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-72"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy#cite_note-72"></a></sup><br />
Hydrogen production technologies been a significant area of solar chemical research since the 1970s. Aside from electrolysis driven by photovoltaic or photochemical cells, several thermochemical processes have also been explored. One such route uses concentrators to split water into oxygen and hydrogen at high temperatures (2300-2600 °C).Another approach uses the heat from solar concentrators to drive the steam reformation of natural gas thereby increasing the overall hydrogen yield compared to conventional reforming methods<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-74"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy#cite_note-74"></a></sup> Thermochemical cycles characterized by the decomposition and regeneration of reactants present another avenue for hydrogen production. The Solzinc process under development at the Weizmann Institute uses a 1 MW solar furnace to decompose zinc oxide (ZnO) at temperatures above 1200 °C. This initial reaction produces pure zinc, which can subsequently be reacted with water to produce hydrogen.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-75"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy#cite_note-75"></a></sup><br />
Sandia's Sunshine to Petrol (S2P) technology uses the high temperatures generated by concentrating sunlight along with a zirconia/ferrite catalyst to break down atmospheric carbon dioxide into oxygen and carbon monoxide (CO). The carbon monoxide can then be used to synthesize conventional fuels such as methanol, gasoline and jet fuel.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-76"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy#cite_note-76"></a></sup><br />
A photogalvanic device is a type of battery in which the cell solution (or equivalent) forms energy-rich chemical intermediates when illuminated. These energy-rich intermediates can potentially be stored and subsequently reacted at the electrodes to produce an electric potential. The ferric-thionine chemical cell is an example of this technology.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-77"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy#cite_note-77"></a></sup><br />
Photoelectrochemical cells or PECs consist of a semiconductor, typically titanium dioxide or related titanates, immersed in an electrolyte. When the semiconductor is illuminated an electrical potential develops. There are two types of photoelectrochemical cells: photoelectric cells that convert light into electricity and photochemical cells that use light to drive chemical reactions such as electrolysis.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Bolton_78-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy#cite_note-Bolton-78"></a></sup><br />
A combination thermal/photochemical cell has also been proposed. The Stanford PETE process uses solar thermal energy to raise the temperature of a thermionic metal to about 800C to increase the rate of production of electricity to electrolyse atmospheric CO2 down to carbon or carbon monoxide which can then be used for fuel production, and the waste heat can be used as well.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-79"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy#cite_note-79"></a></sup><br />
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Solar_vehicles">Solar vehicles</span></h3><div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main articles: Solar vehicle, Solar-charged vehicle, Electric boat, and Solar balloon</div><div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nuna3Team.JPG"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="200" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Nuna3Team.JPG/220px-Nuna3Team.JPG" width="220" /></a> <br />
<div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"></div>Australia hosts the World Solar Challenge where solar cars like the Nuna3 race through a 3,021 km (1,877 mi) course from Darwin to Adelaide.</div></div></div><br />
Development of a solar powered car has been an engineering goal since the 1980s. The World Solar Challenge is a biannual solar-powered car race, where teams from universities and enterprises compete over 3,021 kilometres (1,877 mi) across central Australia from Darwin to Adelaide. In 1987, when it was founded, the winner's average speed was 67 kilometres per hour (42 mph) and by 2007 the winner's average speed had improved to 90.87 kilometres per hour (56.46 mph). The North American Solar Challenge and the planned South African Solar Challenge are comparable competitions that reflect an international interest in the engineering and development of solar powered vehicles.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-82"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy#cite_note-82"></a></sup><br />
Some vehicles use solar panels for auxiliary power, such as for air conditioning, to keep the interior cool, thus reducing fuel consumption.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-84"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy#cite_note-84"></a></sup><br />
In 1975, the first practical solar boat was constructed in England.By 1995, passenger boats incorporating PV panels began appearing and are now used extensively.In 1996, Kenichi Horie made the first solar powered crossing of the Pacific Ocean, and the <i>sun21</i> catamaran made the first solar powered crossing of the Atlantic Ocean in the winter of 2006–2007. There are plans to circumnavigate the globe in 2010.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-88"></sup><br />
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Helios_in_flight.jpg"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="144" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Helios_in_flight.jpg/220px-Helios_in_flight.jpg" width="220" /></a> <br />
<div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"></div>Helios UAV in solar powered flight.</div></div></div>In 1974, the unmanned AstroFlight Sunrise plane made the first solar flight. On 29 April 1979, the <i>Solar Riser</i> made the first flight in a solar powered, fully controlled, man carrying flying machine, reaching an altitude of 40 feet (12 m). In 1980, the <i>Gossamer Penguin</i> made the first piloted flights powered solely by photovoltaics. This was quickly followed by the <i>Solar Challenger</i> which crossed the English Channel in July 1981. In 1990 Eric Scott Raymond in 21 hops flew from California to North Carolina using solar power. Developments then turned back to unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) with the <i>Pathfinder</i> (1997) and subsequent designs, culminating in the <i>Helios</i><br />
<i> </i> which set the altitude record for a non-rocket-propelled aircraft at 29,524 metres (96,864 ft) in 2001.The <i>Zephyr</i>, developed by BAE Systems, is the latest in a line of record-breaking solar aircraft, making a 54-hour flight in 2007, and month-long flights are envisioned by 2010.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-91"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy#cite_note-91"></a></sup><br />
A solar balloon is a black balloon that is filled with ordinary air. As sunlight shines on the balloon, the air inside is heated and expands causing an upward buoyancy force, much like an artificially heated hot air balloon. Some solar balloons are large enough for human flight, but usage is generally limited to the toy market as the surface-area to payload-weight ratio is relatively high.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-92"></sup><br />
Solar sails are a proposed form of spacecraft propulsion using large membrane mirrors to exploit radiation pressure from the Sun. Unlike rockets, solar sails require no fuel. Although the thrust is small compared to rockets, it continues as long as the Sun shines onto the deployed sail and in the vacuum of space significant speeds can eventually be achieved.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-93"></sup><br />
The High-altitude airship (HAA) is an unmanned, long-duration, lighter-than-air vehicle using helium gas for lift, and thin film solar cells for power. The United States Department of Defense Missile Defense Agency has contracted Lockheed Martin to construct it to enhance the Ballistic Missile Defense System (BMDS).Airships have some advantages for solar-powered flight: they do not require power to remain aloft, and an airship's envelope presents a large area to the Sun.<br />
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Energy_storage_methods">Energy storage methods</span></h2><div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main articles: Thermal mass, Thermal energy storage, Phase change material, Grid energy storage, and V2G</div><div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Solar_two.jpg"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="110" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Solar_two.jpg/220px-Solar_two.jpg" width="220" /></a> <br />
<div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"></div>Solar Two's thermal storage system generated electricity during cloudy weather and at night.</div></div></div>Solar energy is not available at night, and energy storage is an important issue because modern energy systems usually assume continuous availability of energy.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-95"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy#cite_note-95"></a></sup><br />
Thermal mass systems can store solar energy in the form of heat at domestically useful temperatures for daily or seasonal durations. Thermal storage systems generally use readily available materials with high specific heat capacities such as water, earth and stone. Well-designed systems can lower peak demand, shift time-of-use to off-peak hours and reduce overall heating and cooling requirements.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-97"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy#cite_note-97"></a></sup><br />
Phase change materials such as paraffin wax and Glauber's salt are another thermal storage media. These materials are inexpensive, readily available, and can deliver domestically useful temperatures (approximately 64 °C). The "Dover House" (in Dover, Massachusetts) was the first to use a Glauber's salt heating system, in 1948.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-98"></sup><br />
Solar energy can be stored at high temperatures using molten salts. Salts are an effective storage medium because they are low-cost, have a high specific heat capacity and can deliver heat at temperatures compatible with conventional power systems. The Solar Two used this method of energy storage, allowing it to store 1.44 TJ in its 68 m<sup>3</sup> storage tank with an annual storage efficiency of about 99%.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-99"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy#cite_note-99"></a></sup><br />
Off-grid PV systems have traditionally used rechargeable batteries to store excess electricity. With grid-tied systems, excess electricity can be sent to the transmission grid, while standard grid electricity can be used to meet shortfalls. Net metering programs give household systems a credit for any electricity they deliver to the grid. This is often legally handled by 'rolling back' the meter whenever the home produces more electricity than it consumes. If the net electricity use is below zero, the utility is required to pay for the extra at the same rate as they charge consumers. Other legal approaches involve the use of two meters, to measure electricity consumed vs. electricity produced. This is less common due to the increased installation cost of the second meter.<br />
Pumped-storage hydroelectricity stores energy in the form of water pumped when energy is available from a lower elevation reservoir to a higher elevation one. The energy is recovered when demand is high by releasing the water to run through a hydroelectric power generator.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-101"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy#cite_note-101"></a></sup><br />
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Development.2C_deployment_and_economics">Development, deployment and economics</span></h2><div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main article: Deployment of solar power to energy grids</div><div class="rellink boilerplate seealso">See also: Cost of electricity by source</div><div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dish_Stirling_Systems_of_SBP_in_Spain.JPG"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="162" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Dish_Stirling_Systems_of_SBP_in_Spain.JPG/220px-Dish_Stirling_Systems_of_SBP_in_Spain.JPG" width="220" /></a> <br />
<div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"></div>A parabolic dish and stirling engine system, which concentrates sunlight to produce useful solar power.</div></div></div>Beginning with the surge in coal use which accompanied the Industrial Revolution, energy consumption has steadily transitioned from wood and biomass to fossil fuels. The early development of solar technologies starting in the 1860s was driven by an expectation that coal would soon become scarce. However development of solar technologies stagnated in the early 20th century in the face of the increasing availability, economy, and utility of coal and petroleum.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-102"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy#cite_note-102"></a></sup><br />
The 1973 oil embargo and 1979 energy crisis caused a reorganization of energy policies around the world and brought renewed attention to developing solar technologies. Deployment strategies focused on incentive programs such as the Federal Photovoltaic Utilization Program in the US and the Sunshine Program in Japan. Other efforts included the formation of research facilities in the US (SERI, now NREL), Japan (NEDO), and Germany (Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-105"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy#cite_note-105"></a></sup><br />
Commercial solar water heaters began appearing in the United States in the 1890s.These systems saw increasing use until the 1920s but were gradually replaced by cheaper and more reliable heating fuels.As with photovoltaics, solar water heating attracted renewed attention as a result of the oil crises in the 1970s but interest subsided in the 1980s due to falling petroleum prices. Development in the solar water heating sector progressed steadily throughout the 1990s and growth rates have averaged 20% per year since 1999.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-SWH_2008_38-1"></sup> Although generally underestimated, solar water heating and cooling is by far the most widely deployed solar technology with an estimated capacity of 154 GW as of 2007.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-SWH_2008_38-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy#cite_note-SWH_2008-38"></a></sup><br />
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="ISO_Standards">ISO Standards</span></h2>The International Organization for Standardization has established a number of standards relating to solar energy equipment. For example, ISO 9050 relates to glass in building while ISO 10217 relates to the materials used in solar water heaters.</div>Dipeshhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06615527224092462437noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6737572072500940123.post-15816259629587110842011-05-08T01:22:00.000-07:002011-05-08T02:47:46.144-07:00The Electricity Crisis<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiXW6F5hm9aiO6BydlWjgW6OnQaY5AWl5iFA72_ljsnoXfAVq3W08Ru19p0aNsVCRDStZhJORPsTZaAFE1GWT1P0Kr-mEwxSAH3QEy5hhWFliQCzRB11cvSQTnvWAYXD_OfFW8UGQZOLS4A/s1600/images.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiXW6F5hm9aiO6BydlWjgW6OnQaY5AWl5iFA72_ljsnoXfAVq3W08Ru19p0aNsVCRDStZhJORPsTZaAFE1GWT1P0Kr-mEwxSAH3QEy5hhWFliQCzRB11cvSQTnvWAYXD_OfFW8UGQZOLS4A/s1600/images.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b style="color: blue;">Fig</b>:<span style="color: magenta;">Problem Of Electricity</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiVnsDe4wu2w2J4tlnmv0aX3mNjVr8ymjf_zjpaNzIjafSDILa3nBwz3MgEW0oLtZYPpVE6hlYtDUYZd9favqp3xKN8UVc30DwM7yWxOEKT84X2qHPLt8lYwjk85wBdM5hUCsg9Kw1CDpzz/s1600/images.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><br />
</a><b>The Electricity Crisis</b> <br />
It assesses and analyzes the status of Solar Water Pumping System SWPS put in for drinking, domestic and irrigation purposes in Sirohi, Abu ,Manki and Ramgargh villages of Alwar district. The findings of the study, therefore, will be useful for the planners, administrators, concerned organized village people, researchers and students. The on the whole objective of the article is to explain the present status of solar water pumping system in Alwar district to assess performance and problems of SWPS, to assess impacts of SWPS in Alwar district; and to provide suggestions on how solar SWPS can be made more admired as well as reasonable for village people.<br />
<b>Approach and Methodology</b><br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiKW5WxKEGGx_RaHctudxrDbDVFUgnYTV-pGSZDXURue3bUQBQOPCPUU9kUqXxJ90VcBMdb2oYwKQ0AJ3c-pcS2ky8581sh8jXKhQ4vutPnjTBzZmznlpPF7nKs9OHAWkRgHqeSdy3JiEq3/s1600/images1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiKW5WxKEGGx_RaHctudxrDbDVFUgnYTV-pGSZDXURue3bUQBQOPCPUU9kUqXxJ90VcBMdb2oYwKQ0AJ3c-pcS2ky8581sh8jXKhQ4vutPnjTBzZmznlpPF7nKs9OHAWkRgHqeSdy3JiEq3/s200/images1.jpg" width="153" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b style="color: red;">Fig</b>: <span style="color: magenta;">Light Bulb Glowing Filament</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>methodology adopted in the study is qualitative and quantitative. The study is mainly field based and descriptive. It uses both primary and secondary sources of information. The secondary data were collected from WECS, NSES, AEPC, National Planning Commission Secretariat, and Center for Renewable Energy, Center for Energy Studies of Institute of Engineering, REDP of UNDP, Royal Nepal Academy of Science and Technology and other related organizations. The key data is collected through field visits. Three sets of semi-structured questionnaires were developed and served to the members of the user groups of SWPS and manufactures or organizations installing the systems. The field survey was conducted during May 2000. Taking interview with the members of user groups of SWPS who were using water for drinking purposes and irrigation purposes, semi-structured questionnaires were filled up. The qualitative data was collected through focus group discussion with the user group members and key informants of the village. Three sites of the Alwar as Sirohi, Abu ,Manki and Ramgargh were included in the study.<br />
<br />
As more and more groundwater sources become unsafe for drinking purposes, potable water often needs to be drawn from depths that require some form of pumping. A Solar-Powered Water Pumping System uses solar energy to power a pump to supply a village with potable water. Solar pumping systems are commonly used where it is too far to walk to a well or where the well only provides seasonally usable water. An SPS is most beneficial when a community can come together to organize, build, finance, and manage the project.<br />
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There are several characteristics that make a community a good candidate for a solar pumping project. The following ideas will help you consider how your community’s situation compares with qualities of a successful project. Currently, families must walk a good distance to obtain clean drinking water. Existing wells are too shallow or deeper wells would not work with typical rope pump mechanisms.<br />
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The people in the community work well together, with no disruptive groups. The proposed project would provide services to all community members with no discrimination. There is good local leadership and social justice values are high. The community is able to come together with a group representative, and organize to build, manage, and collect Water is used for drinking, day-to-day uses and perhaps animal watering. While large-scale applications like crop irrigation are generally not supported by an SPS, drip irrigation can be. Not intended to bring indoor plumbing or drastic changes in standard-of-living. The site has reliable solar resources and relatively expensive, inaccessible, or inefficient alternatives. For example, fuel costs and maintenance for diesel generators.<br />
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Working of Solar Water Pumping System.<br />
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A Solar Pumping System uses electricity to power a pump in a well. Solar Photo voltaic (PV) Panels transform the sun’s energy into electricity to power the pump. When it is nighttime or very cloudy, the PV panels produce no electricity, so no water is pumped. To provide water whenever it is needed, extra water is pumped during the day and stored in a tank above ground.<br />
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Electricity Generation: Photo voltaic (PV) panels change sunlight to electrical flow. The electricity then flows to a controller, which monitors the water level in the well and storage tank to ensure safe pump operation.<br />
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Pumping: If the sun is shining, the storage tank is not full, and the well is not empty, the pump runs. Water is pumped from the water level in the well to the top of the storage tank, a distance generally called the head or lift.<br />
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Water Storage: Water is stored in a large tank, usually set on a hill at a point that is high relative to other locations in the village. It is best if the well is located close to the location of the tank. Excess water is pumped to the tank to provide water when the pump is being serviced or cloud cover prevents electricity from being generated. Storage is generally provided for at least two to three days projected use.<br />
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Water Points: The water tap or taps are the places where the village residents come to gather water. Since we depend on gravity to carry the water from the tank through the piping system to the water points, the water points need to be at a lower elevation than the bottom of the storage tank. This way, no additional electricity is needed to distribute the water from the tank.</div>Dipeshhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06615527224092462437noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6737572072500940123.post-38796375494678603862011-05-08T01:15:00.000-07:002011-05-08T03:09:55.975-07:00Alternate Option To Reduce The Power Crisis By Using Solar Energy.<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjW7HHi6gQ8r2o52W-PMn9-U7DFaxGpCLOXX4UDgFHtORiv6nmT3ZugKXUUxxkQI6GUcwwhkg5g7wpk7t97xibNetC6n3V5ChCZwpQycSktQ_SYgn-juIt8mH_768M4jGAoTYBFOzM52g3j/s1600/images4.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><br />
</a></div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjSVyP6Cerjv28w4CLhY9hZSdxz0aXWPmUXcfzHCHWFBRH_epfTukthR1HhWx-TzDS5GJaDQM0vfqCcG2FYxTgo_CPVlmxXFlz0hptgnIsgrqVlSKtJKSnrpPBRIqV18l_Biak0LVS7mqMi/s1600/images2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="193" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjSVyP6Cerjv28w4CLhY9hZSdxz0aXWPmUXcfzHCHWFBRH_epfTukthR1HhWx-TzDS5GJaDQM0vfqCcG2FYxTgo_CPVlmxXFlz0hptgnIsgrqVlSKtJKSnrpPBRIqV18l_Biak0LVS7mqMi/s200/images2.jpg" width="200" /></a><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJs106w2TRC7w9EQLL0l9jC1Va6tGxPt9NHS-_K-WkD6OMf2jQj9OCI0OSy51iZIgOIpQSPt_XcQLnjHpLzMp0DRS0dn4tdaQErG3CS-X3HF6SeNCBHtmPLYndgl16YfqwB7N7Yu4L3bSn/s1600/images3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="166" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJs106w2TRC7w9EQLL0l9jC1Va6tGxPt9NHS-_K-WkD6OMf2jQj9OCI0OSy51iZIgOIpQSPt_XcQLnjHpLzMp0DRS0dn4tdaQErG3CS-X3HF6SeNCBHtmPLYndgl16YfqwB7N7Yu4L3bSn/s200/images3.jpg" width="200" /></a>It assesses and analyzes the status of Solar Water Pumping System SWPS installed for drinking, domestic and irrigation purposes in Todke, Bhulke and Phulbariya villages of Siraha district. The findings of the study, therefore, will be useful for the planners, administrators, concerned organized village people, researchers and students. The overall objective of the article is to explain the present status of solar PV Water pumping system in Siraha district to assess performance and problems of SWPS, to assess impacts of SWPS in Siraha district; and to provide suggestions on how solar SWPS can be made more popular as well as affordable for village people.<br />
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjW7HHi6gQ8r2o52W-PMn9-U7DFaxGpCLOXX4UDgFHtORiv6nmT3ZugKXUUxxkQI6GUcwwhkg5g7wpk7t97xibNetC6n3V5ChCZwpQycSktQ_SYgn-juIt8mH_768M4jGAoTYBFOzM52g3j/s1600/images4.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="142" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjW7HHi6gQ8r2o52W-PMn9-U7DFaxGpCLOXX4UDgFHtORiv6nmT3ZugKXUUxxkQI6GUcwwhkg5g7wpk7t97xibNetC6n3V5ChCZwpQycSktQ_SYgn-juIt8mH_768M4jGAoTYBFOzM52g3j/s200/images4.jpg" width="200" /></a></div>Dipeshhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06615527224092462437noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6737572072500940123.post-51618621064617045452011-05-08T01:06:00.000-07:002011-05-08T01:06:01.510-07:00Engineering condition in Nepal<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">Nepal is situated between two develpes countries India and China.Comparing with nenighbour countries Nepal is undeveloped country.Most of the places are remote here.So there are a lot of engineering work to do in Nepal.To develope the country transpotation is most nesessary part.Without roads no transpotation is not possible.<br />
To make good roads engineers are required. So we have to produce more engineers.<br />
As you all know that Nepal is reach in water resources.There are a lot of revers in Nepal.So engineers have to make bridges.<br />
At present a lot of engineering projects are on hold due to political condition.<br />
In Nepal , there are a lot of load seding.To menemize the loas seding we have to utilize our water resources.<br />
We have to utilize our water resources and convert it into electricity ot menemize load seding.<br />
Hence engineers plays vitel role to develope the country.<br />
</div>Dipeshhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06615527224092462437noreply@blogger.com0